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The task of this paper is to examine trade union policy and the 1852 lock-out in the British engineering industry. The focus of attention will be upon the development of worker militancy and how this led to the lock-out. Although a history of the British engineering worker has long been extant, the causes of the 1852 dispute remain controversial. In The Story of the Engineers, J. B. Jefferys emphasizes the opposition of workers to systematic overtime and piece-work. Henry Pelling, in a more recent work, attributes the dispute to the opposition of skilled men to the employment of unskilled labour. I hope this paper throws more light on the origins of the 1852 lock-out.

The Keynes Controversy in the Light of Our Experience. — In 1953, Erich Schneider in an important paper tried to “solve” the Keynes controversy in Germany. He defended Keynes against attacks by Ropke, Hahn, Meyer, and others, who pretend that an application of his theory inevitably leads to permanent inflation, and he maintained, logically arguing, that Keynes’s theory is “general” in the sense that it leads to certain results in depression as well as inflation. In the present paper it is suggested that the Keynesian revolution changed the attitudes of entrepreneurs, trade unions and politicians considerably so that today the government is expected to run a full employment policy, the result of which is a tendency towards creeping inflation. Though in theory applicable to both depression and inflation, employment of Keynesian tools to control overall monetary demand is really successful in depressions only. Thus, given the above-mentioned expectations of trade unions and entrepreneurs, Keynesian policies have to be sustained by policies on the microeconomic level to allow for steady growth of national incomes and a stable price level.

This paper reports the results of further tests performed with a slightly changed version of the Econometric Model of the Austrian Economy's Monetary Sector.

Sweden's technological development based on big science supporting high politics is turning to more welfare-oriented technologies. The tension between the university reform performed by an inward-looking government and industrial innovation carried out by an outward-looking business community is discussed. The paper covers the time span of the quiet postwar years, the attempt to institutionalize science policy in the 1960's and the sectoral approach to science and technology advocated in the 1970's. The implications of the polarization of science policy between the government and the technological community at a time of European integration is discussed.

The purpose of this paper is to present a survey of the Cameroonian experience in development planning with emphasis on the regional dimension. In the course of analysing the planning process and implementation, an attempt will be made to shed light on some of the major problems which have been encountered in evaluating the development effort at the regional level.

A Contribution to the Problem of Consumption Function in the German Federal Republic. — In this paper the consumption parameters of private households are examined with the aid of average data for income and consumption. On the basis of the results thus obtained, the consumption function for the German Federal Republic is empirically estimated.

This paper was delivered at the University of Aberdeen's conference on 'Scandinavia and European Integration' in March, 1971. There are four sections, the first of which is a chronological review of the Nordek case. Secondly, an analysis of the Nordek Draft Treaty provisions shows that the treaty represents the most far-reaching step in regard to the integration of social and economic policy spheres yet considered in Scandinavia. Thirdly, the key factor in explaining the collapse of the Nordek plan is the increasing penetration of European 'high politics' into Nordic cooperative arrangements. Political stalemate concerning expanded membership of the European Economic Community favored Nordek. That stalemate was broken after de Gaulle's political demise. The changed conditions brought into sharp relief the incompatibility of Finland's neutrality policy with participation in a Nordek which would include such potential EEC members as Denmark and Norway. Finally, future prospects are examined through the construction of four basic choices presented as models. The Greater European model and the Divided Scandinavia model contain the international dimensions of the dilemma presently facing the Scandinavians.

Monetary Aspects of the 1971/72 Report of the German Council of Economic Advisers. — This paper deals mainly with the concept of a “computable credit maximum” (Ks+) for the commercial banking system, as presented by the German Council of Economic Advisers. Ks+ is supposed to be based on a theory of credit creation which, however, is not explained. The advisers base interpretations of monetary policy on Ks+ and, strangely enough, use it as an indicator, at the same time, of the direction and the energy of (1) total monetary policy, (2) minimumreserve policy alone and (3) monetary impulses in general.

The mediterranean policy of the european community1 FORMS an important part of its general external policy. Since this paper can, therefore, be considered as a case study, it is worth trying to define at the outset the concept of ‘external policy’. The Treaties did not delegate to the common European institutions any of the powers of foreign polity-making traditionally exercised by the nation state, but the granting of wholesale economic competences and the consequential obligation of evolving a common commercial policy ensured that the Community would come into direct contact with non-member states. Through its diplomatic relations with other countries,2 the Community has become an actor on the international stage, whilst the scope of its external relations has frequently exceeded that of purely commercial policy.3 It is both meaningful and useful to consider the Community as exercising an external policy — a kind of half-way house to full foreign policy. While any study of Community policy — formation and substance — may help to illuminate the integration process, external policy is particularly important for those who assume that the scope of integration will continue to increase.

The Relation between Prices and Planning viewed as Instruments of Central Economic Direction. — In the Hungarian People’s Republic the conditions requisite for an optimum growth rate and a continuous rise in the standard of living have, according to the reform of the directing and planning system of January 1st, 1968, been created by the introduction of a system of variously timed economic plans. The main relations of the developing economy are worked out by the Government according to the plan. The realization of these plans is safeguarded not so much by specification according to enterprises, but mainly by introducing economic regulators which adjust the market according to the plan and influence entrepreneurial decision. The price system is one of these regulators. Its basic function is to influence and direct both producers and consumers as to their economic decisions. The government fixes only 39 p.c. of producers’ prices and 51 p.c. of consumers’ prices. The planning of prices (price relations and price levels) differs according to the timing of the various plans. The five-year and one-year plans are based on the respective current prices. The prices should reflect the relations of social expenses, the effects of national and international markets, and the State preferences. But the instruments so far used need to be developed in order to fully attain these aims. In addition to giving information on the generally very favourable experiences of the first few years, the paper specifies the developments still to be achieved.

Reflections on the Organization of Transfer Payments to Households. — Relatively few studies are extant that deal with the principles governing the redistribution functions of public budgets. This paper shows that neither the principle of general taxation, nor that of non-affection can here be applied. For the purpose of financing redistribution, the population should be classified into those taxed and those benefiting. Transfer payments to those benefiting, or remissions granted in their favour (gross effect) should coincide as far as possible with their actual benefit (net effect), so that taxation need not be unnecessarily increased. It is shown what a redistribution system fulfilling these conditions could look like in cases of loss of income through socially relevant causes (old age, illness, disablement, etc.) and in cases of additional charges (upkeep and education of children). Special stress is laid on determining the “zero line” within such a system. A similar study is undertaken with regard to vertical redistribution among market incomes. In this connection, standards are discussed with the aid of which politicians may render concrete their redistribution ideals. It is described in detail how the various approaches, especially the aims of vertical redistribution, can be combined with an adjustment of income among persons gaining their living and persons unable to do so, and how the whole can be made to form a well-balanced system. Finally, the question is discussed whether there are objective criteria of an optimal extent of redistribution, or whether this is a problem that can only be solved by political decision.

The double crisis we witnessed last autumn dates back to six months ago, yet it may already be possible to outline a schematic picture of its repercussions on the international organizations in Europe. I shall describe neither the structures of these organizations nor the way they work, but, rather, the political context, which alone permits us to evaluate their potential for action and influence on the European scene. This paper will therefore deal first with the immediate consequences of the Budapest massacres and with the unsuccessful enterprise of the Anglo-French forces in Suez. It will then try to evaluate the present political motivations of the French, British, and German policies, and this will lead to an examination of the political decay of both NATO in Europe and the Western European Union. A cursory glance at what is usually called the European parliaments—already in existence or in the process of being created—will lead us to conclusions in which the Algerian question and the question of German reunification will figure more predominantly than international organizations whose juridical future seems more certain than their political effectiveness.

Trade-creating and Trade-diverting Effects of EEC on German Imports, Special Account Taken of EFTA Countries. — An attempt has been made in this paper to quantify the trade-creating and trade-diverting effects of EEC on the German Federal Republic’s imports. Imports of the following five commodity groups have been examined: foodstuffs, raw materials, half-finished products, prefab and finished products. Distinction has been made only between total imports from EEC countries and total imports from all other countries. In addition, however, total imports from EFTA countries have been considered. Volume figures not being generally available, the analysis has been based on the actual value figures for imports.

Short-term International Capital Movements in the German Federal Republic’s Credit Institutions from 1960 to 1970 — An Econometric Approach.-The attempt is made in this paper to analyse the factors determining the shortterm international assets and liabilities of the Federal German credit institutions for the period from July 1960 to March 1970, and at the same time to quantify the force of their influence.

For the past few decades, European integration has been one of the primary issues not just in politics, but also in the social sciences. This issue becomes even more important when research takes place in countries where the population is ambivalent in their support for the EU and European integration. The main aims of the study presented in this paper are to investigate differences in Serbia and Croatia in proEuropean orientation and the perception of European integration (EI) as a threat, and to determine the factors underlying both constructs by focusing on sociodemographic variables, the importance of religion, and different forms of national attachment. The results show that citizens of Croatia have a stronger pro-European orientation, while there is no difference in the perception of EI as a threat. Pro-European orientation is determined by the respondents' national identity (in both countries) and gender, the importance of religion, and national pride in the state (only in Serbia). The significant predictors for the perception of EI as a threat were constructive patriotism and national pride in successful individuals (in Serbia), blind patriotism (in Croatia) and the importance of religion (in both countries). The practical importance of the results could be in understanding the obstacles and reservations different people have regarding European integrations.

his note to my paper on "Optimal Monetary Reserves for Developing Countries"1, Sergio Pereira-Leite maintains that developing countries use their monetary reserves to attract long-term capital inflows, and then attempts to incorporate this function in my model. Both of these aspects deserve separate attention. Whether developing countries do or do not keep monetary reserves to attract long-term foreign capital is a question which cannot be a priori answered. A fruitful way of investigating this problem would be to examine whether there is a causal relationship between monetary reserves and long-term capital inflows. The available information, however, fails to suggest such a relationship. One may find countries with a high level of reserves but without any corresponding long-term capital inflows, or countries with a low level of reserves attracting large amounts of longterm foreign capital. Similarly, there are countries which had large long-term capital inflows when their monetary reserves were comparatively low and almost no long-term capital inflows when reserves were high. Pereira-Leite refers to the monetary reserves of a developing country as an indicator of its financial strength. But since monetary reserves are of a short-term character, the financial strength demonstrated through them can be relevant for investors of only short-term capital2. Long-term capital, on the other hand, is guided by various factors, which together

Together with its “Report on the State of the Nation 1972” the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany presented an extensive collection of studies. Drawn up by 50 experts, the report on the development in the two German states should, according to Willy Brandt, contribute to facilitate political judgement and to sobering political discussion. In our last edition we published a summary of the chapter on the State of the Nation’s External Economy. This paper is a summary of the two German states’ development aid. The author, in cooperation with Hans-Ludwig Dornbusch and Dieter W. Vogelsang, participated in the composition of this chapter.

This article offers an interesting survey of the ASEAN countries’ role as raw material suppliers to Western Germany and the EC, its history, present performance and future prospects. Some of this paper’s contents are very informative and surprising indeed.

The purpose of this paper is to explore one of the more subtle problems facing the United States. The problem concerns retaining economic and political power In the face of decreasing self-sufficiency in natural resources and raw materials.

The devaluation of the British Pound and the most speculation in gold and the dollar have lead to a hectic activity on the part of the monetary authorities in the industrial countries of the West. It is unlikely that anybody should have regarded the splitting up of the gold market—necessary though it was as a counter-measure—as a panacea which would prove efficacious in the long run. At the meeting in Stockholm of the Club of Ten the attempt was therefore made to parry the diminshing importance of gold within the monetary system by a speedier activation of the Special Drawing Rights—“the paper gold”. This constituted without doubt a decisive step towards rationalising and stabilising the international monetary system.

The removal of tariff barriers within the European Economic Community has presented manufacturing industry with the opportunity to plan for and to supply a greatly Increased home market. This paper Is directed at showing how the motor Industry, and especially certain firms within it, are In the vanguard of European integration.

Influence of integration, democratization and informatization society processes on the development and forming of education systems aims in European countries as well as in Ukraine is analyzed in the paper. It is considered the development of Ukrainian education system in direction of European integration, Bologna process, integration to the European education systems. Such modern phenomena as unified educational space, global educational space and open educational environment of education systems as well as the key role of information and communication technologies playing a great role in these processes have been determined and analyzed.

About a year ago Herr Kurt Ladendorff, auditor in Hamburg, caused quite a sensation with his projected establishment of “europoint”, an international conference centre in the Hamburg suburb of Wedel, located in Schleswig-Holstein. Whilst the interest of local papers concentrated on the projected super-hotel, the restaurants for gourmets, bowling-alleys, and other recreation centres, the interest of experts focussed on the question of why it should be the Hamburg region where such an international meeting centre is to be established. According to the wishes of its planner “europoint” is to be an international meeting centre not only between the economic blocs—i.e. above all between EEC and EFTA — but over and above this a show-window, a permanent trade fair for EFTA firms establishing themselves in the Common Market. Particularly in view of this latter task no better location could be thought of. Last years’ company promotions in the EEC area, initiated by firms domiciled in EFTA countries, have been concentrating conspicuously on the Hamburg/Schleswig-Holstein region. In the following contribution our author investigates kind, size, and importance of these company promotions.

Inquiries into the economic and general significance of intra-European migration were regarded as unimportant until recently, when interest began to be aroused in European integration and in the redistribution of population within the continent as an alternative to oversea migration. This is not a criticism of previous work in this field. First of all, mention must be made of the chapters in Dudley Kirk’s study, Europe’s Population in the Inter-War Years (League of Nations, 1946). It is not easy to think of an idea on the subject which is not to be found in that book. No synthesis based on recent research has been published; years of co-ordinated study by many scholars will be required before any new generalizations can be formulated concerning the history and future possibilities of European migration. The present paper is intended merely as an outline for discussion and a stimulus to further work.

With its “Report on the State of the Nation 1971” the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) simultaneously presented an extensive volume of collected studies. Drawn up by 50 experts, the report on the development in the two German states should contribute to facilitating political judgement and to sobering political discussion, according to Willy Brandt The author participated in the composition of the chapter dealing with the economic integration of the two German states with their specific allies. This paper is a summary of his report.

During a speech in Brussels in May, I970, commemorating the twentieth anniversary of the Schuman Plan, the President of the Court of Justice of the European Communities, Robert Lecourt, declared that the country which becomes a member of the Community "marries its law." With Britain's membership impending, the question obviously needs to be posed, what kind of a marriage will it be? The purpose of this paper is to examine the legal aspects and implications arising from the entry of the United Kingdom into the European Community. In particular, it will focus on the legal basis and effects of the accession treaty, the impact of Community law on the British legal system and judicial procedures, and the possible influence of common law practices on the judicial functions of the Court of Justice of the European Communities. In view of the complexity of some of the legal and constitutional issues involved, this study is largely preliminary in nature, seeking to identify major problems and perhaps raising questions for intensive research. Practical experience gathered from the gradual fusion of Britain into the European Community will undoubtedly be an invaluable anld essential contribution to answers to some of these questions.