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Aspects of safety, cost, and environmental impact favor the use of landfill or polder sites at offshore locations in lakes or the ocean for airports. Studies for a number of large American and foreign cities at offshore sites have shown that adequate safety can be provided by conservative selection of design criteria. Costs for sites to suffice for a large metropolitan airport lie between $19,000 and $90,000/acre ($5 to $23 m²). Considering need for less land as buffer zone at offshore sites than at land-based airports, total site development costs are expected to lie between $230,000,000 and $900,000,000. Environmental effects are generally mild, but more research is needed in this area. The conduct and status of Chicago's airport studies are reviewed.

Strategically, the Arctic enjoys the unique - and also somewhat precarious - position as a 'buffer zone' between the two superpowers; the USA and the USSR. On the out skirts of the Arctic region, the Barents Sea has become, in military-political terms, one of the most important sea areas in the world. A factor of prime significance in this connection has been the growing Soviet emphasis on a forward naval strategy linked with the massive build-up of the Northern Fleet and the Kola base. Against this back drop, the author analyses the strategic importance of the Polar region, and the changes brought about by the discovery of oil, natural gas and minerals in Northern Siberia, Canada and Alaska as well as on the continental shelf in the Arctic Ocean. Although the development and transit of these new resources could become a stabilizing factor in the area, there are still unresolved problems as regards division of rights and boundaries. The main strategic importance of the Polar region will still be derived from its location between the two superpowers. The author finds that the situation as it now develops in the Polar region could be exploited to achieve two important aims of Norwegian foreign policy: to strengthen Norway's ties with its Atlantic partners, and to increase the assurance of the Soviet Union. In order to achieve these aims, a common policy should be worked out in cooperation with other NATO members who have interests in the Polar region, i.e. Denmark, Iceland, Canada and the United States.

Dispersal of the larvae of the cattle tick Boophilus microplus (Can.) was studied in connection with problems of controlling and eradicating this pest and bovine babesiosis in New South Wales. Larval ticks were recovered by pressing flannelette-covered boards on to the pasture or litter surface, or sampling with cattle. Many of these larvae were capable of completing parasitic development.Strong winds were an important factor in determining the distance travelled, as the longest journeys in pasture were for the most part in the directions in which the larvae would have been carried by recorded strong winds. Much of the dispersal is accomplished when larvae are transferred from one grass blade to another moving in the wind, but a great number of airborne larvae were captured on tanglefoot-covered traps. Movement by wind was clearly demonstrated over short pasture, up to 100 ft and possibly as far as 260 ft from the point of hatching. In long grass one larva travelled 83 ft, but in scrub and forest the greatest distance travelled was 15 ft. Many larvae that travelled long distances were capable of completing development on cattle.Tick larvae could be transported by casual hosts and then dropped in a viable condition. A horse carried larvae for 900 ft, a rat and cockerels 100 ft, a magpie in flight 600 ft, and a pigeon in flight half a mile. A horse dipped six days earlier in ethion dropped live and viable larvae after transporting them 150 ft.Security has been improved against the movement of larvae from the Cattle Tick Research Station, Wollongbar, New South Wales, to neighbouring properties, and from Queensland into New South Wales, by widening existing buffer zones to 330 ft. Inspectoral staff are now required to spray themselves and their horses before re-entering New South Wales from the buffer zone.

Hickerson has proposed the existence of an unoccupied buffer zone in Minnesota and Wisconsin, between the Chippewa and the Dakota, in the period 1780 to 1850. He suggests that the shape and charact...

The Makalu-Barun National Park (MBNP) and its Buffer Zone (BZ) of eqastern Nepal shares is borders with Sagarmatha National Park on the west and with the Qomolongma Natural Preserve of the Tibet Autonomous Region of China on the North. The Park is rich in cultural diversity with many ethnic groups. Most of the households are economically poor and depend on subsistence agriculture, animal husbandry and diverse natural resources for livelihoods. Slash and burn cultivation on steep slopes, poaching, hunting, over grazing, high dependency on natural resources, poverty and food deficits are the main threats to biodiversity in MBNP and BZ area. The MBNP was established in 1991 while its BZ was declared in 1998. the basic underlying approach of protection and management of the Park and its BZ is biodiversity conservation through people participation, without relying on military force. This paper highlights the implementation of the biodiversity conservation and management approaches through people participation in the MBNP and its BZ, and also explores notable achievements and effectiveness of partnership of the Government of Nepal, the Mountain Institute (TMI) – an INGO and the local communities to sustain conservation efforts as well as to improve local livelihoods. Key words: Biodiversity; National Park; Buffer Zone; participation; culture; linkages Banko Janakari Vol.16(2) 2006 pp.37-44

This paper deals in general with diversity of vascular plants, status of invasive alien species (IAS) and nationally threatened plant species, human use potentials of phytodiversity, and some phytodiversity-based measures to restore and improve the Ramsar characteristics of Beeshazar Lake and surrounding landscape system, which isa part of the Barandabhar forest corridor (BFC) - an extension of buffer zone of the Chitwan National Park, Nepal. Keywords: Phytodiversity, Beeshazar Lakedoi:10.3126/on.v5i1.797Our Nature (2007)5:41-51

Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve (KTWR) which lies in the lowlands of eastern Nepal is the most important wetland for migratory water birds in Nepal, and one of the most important in Asia. It is surrounded by a buffer zone of 173 km2, in which over 80,000 people live, most of whom are dependent on the natural resource base for their livelihoods. Uncontrolled fish harvesting has severely depleted fishery resources depriving local fishermen of their major source of subsistence. Annual waterfowl count has indicated a rapid decline of bird species that are heavily dependent on fish populations. The Darwin Initiative project is assisting local communities around KTWR in managing buffer zone wetlands for sustainable livelihoods, whilst enhancing wetland biodiversity, thus reducing the pressure on resources within KTWR Key words: Ramsar site, globally threatened species, wetland, community, livelihood doi: 10.3126/banko.v19i3.2210 Banko Janakari, Special Issue February 2009, 36-39

Thus far I have discussed ancient Maya sociopolitical structure from the upper levels of the hierarchy downward. Let me now summarize their territorial organization from the bottom upward, starting at the hamlet level (Fig. 8). The smallest unit of settlement—one usually overlooked by archeological surveys in the lowland rain forest—was probably a cluster of thatched huts occupied by a group of related families; larger clusters may have been divided into four quadrants along the lines suggested by Coe ( 26 ). Because of the long fallow period (6 to 8 years) characteristic of slash-and-burn agriculture in the Peten, these small hamlets are presumed to have changed location over the years, although they probably shifted in a somewhat circular fashion around a tertiary ceremonial-civic center for whose maintenance they were partly responsible. These tertiary centers were spaced at fairly regular intervals around secondary ceremonial-civic centers with pyramids, carved monuments, and palace-like residences. In turn, the secondary centers occurred at such regular intervals as to form hexagonal patterns around primary centers, which were still larger, with acropolises, multiple ceremonial plazas, and greater numbers of monuments. In some cases, the distance between secondary centers was roughly twice the distance between secondary and tertiary centers, creating a lattice of nested hexagonal cells. This pattern, which conforms to a Western theoretical construct, was presumably caused by factors of service function, travel, and transport. The pattern was not recognized by the Maya at all. They simply recognized that a whole series of smaller centers were dependent on a primary center and therefore mentioned its emblem glyph. Linking the centers of the various hexagons were marriage alliances between members of royal dynasties, who had no kinship ties with the farmers in the hamlets. Out of the large number of primary centers available to them, the Maya selected four as regional capitals. True to their cosmology, the Maya regarded these capitals as associated with the four quadrants of their realm, regardless of their actual location. Each was the home city for a very important dynasty whose junior members probably ruled secondary centers. Since the hexagonal lattices were probably adjusted to variations in population density, each of the four quadrants of the Maya realm probably controlled a comparable number of persons. So strong was the cognized model that, despite the rise and fall of individual centers, there seem always to have been four capitals, each associated with a direction and, presumably, with a color. There is still a great deal to learn about the social, political, and territorial organization of the lowland Maya, and parts of the picture presented here need far more data for their confirmation. What seems likely is that the Maya had an overall quadripartite organization (rather than a core and buffer zone) and that within each quadrant there was at least a five-tiered administrative hierarchy of capital, secondary center, tertiary center, village, and hamlet. Perhaps most significant, there was no real conflict between the lattice-like network predicted by locational analysis and the cosmological four-part structure predicted by epigraphy and ethnology.

The varied bioclimatic conditions of Nepal favour the introduction of different invasive alien weeds. Mikania micrantha (L.) Kunth is one of the well established invasive alien weeds in the tropical part of eastern and central Nepal. The weed has been caused serious problems in the forests, grasslands, fallow lands, croplands and wetlands of the Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve and its buffer zone. It kills other plants by blocking sunlight and smothering them. The Reserve has initiated to manage the weed with local community in the buffer zone. The paper attempts to highlight the problem of Mikania in the Koshi Tappu area and the efforts of community to manage the weed. Keywords: Mikania micrantha, invasive alien weed, Koshi Tappu, Nepaldoi:10.3126/on.v5i1.801Our Nature (2007)5:70-74

Land use dynamics in the Buffer Zone of Chitwan National Park was assessed by integrated use of Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System covering 1978, 1992 and 1999. Among all land-use type, forest was the most dominating land-use in 1978 covering 45.33% of total study area. However, the agricultural land became the most dominating land-use since 1992. The study found that since 1978 to 1999 there was increase in agricultural land by 67.28 km 2 , built-up area by 0.81 km 2 and shrub-land by 7.68 km 2 . Whereas, the forest decreased by 62.23 km 2 , grassland by 11.38 km 2 and water bodies by 2.16 km 2 . Vegetation density analysis using Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) revealed that the densely vegetated area decreased by 5.03 km 2 in a time-span of less than 10 years. Despite the successful community forest management in the BZ of CNP, this study showed a decline in densely forested area. Key words: GIS, Land use types, management, Remote sensing, Vegetation. DOI: 10.3126/eco.v16i0.3478 ECOPRINT 16: 79-86, 2009

The paradigm shift in park management from a fortress mentality to the participatory concept is represented as a major transformation in the conservation discourse in Nepal. The involvement of local people in the management of resources in national parks has been significantly effective in attaining the conservation goals of conserving wildlife without compromising the basic forest resource needs of the local people. Nevertheless, some economically important species have not been afforded due consideration during such management. This study investigates the species composition and regeneration status of Shorea robusta (Sal) and Terminalia alata (Saj) in 4 Buffer Zone community Forests of Bardia National Park in Thakurdwara VDC in 1999/2000, 2002/2003 and 2005. The results reveal that Shorea robusta (Sal) and Terminalia alata (Saj) both constituted a large proportion of species diversity but that their regeneration from seedlings to established stages were low, suggesting vulnerability of this forest and their sustainability at risk due to their dwindling conditions. Immediate management concern of these economically important forest tree species is warranted. Keywords: Biodiversity, national park, s horea robusta , sustainability, terminalia alata doi: 10.3126/banko.v19i1.2181 Banko Janakari, Vol. 19, No. 1, 37-40

This paper intends to assess the distribution of community forestry benefits among economic groups of the users comparing protected area buffer zone with the Department of Forests regime in Nepal. Following the case study approach two forest user groups of Nawalparasi district, each from buffer zone of Chitwan National Park and Department of Forests regime were selected for the study. The study results suggest that the users in the buffer zone receive less benefit from community forestry than the users in the Department of Forests regime. Analysis of inputs and outputs reveals that poor households receive less benefit than the better off households in both of the regimes. Insofar the results counteract the principles of equity as expected from national forest policy goals and approaches. Key words: benefits, buffer zone, community forestry, equity, heterogeneity, Nepal. doi: 10.3126/banko.v18i1.2165 Banko Janakari, Vol. 18, No. 1, 42-47

The Department of the Army and the General Services Administration have recommended that certain parcels of land located adjacent to the new acid area at Volunteer AAP be declared excess. Attempts were made to provide rationale for retention of this area based on the need for a safety buffer zone. This rationale was not accepted by DA since there is no formal policy in regard to buffer zones around areas containing bulk storage of common chemical compounds. This report describes the rationale and methodology used to establish hazard distances from which buffer zone policy can be established.

During the period 1966-1969, there were three categories of rules which controlled the employment of airpower in the Southeast Asia (SEA) conflict . The Rules of Engagement (ROE) were promulgated by the Joint Chiefs of Staff and sent through channels to the operational commands. Covering all of SEA, these Rules of Engagement defined: geographical limits of SEA, territorial airspace, territorial seas, and international seas and airspace; definitions of friendly forces, hostile forces, hostile acts, hostile aircraft, immediate pursuit, and hostile vessels; rules governing what could be attacked by U.S . aircraft, under what conditions immediate pursuit could be conducted, how declarations of a hostile should be handled, and the conditions of self-defense. The second set of rules was designated Operating Restrictions, which were contained in the CINCPAC Basic Operations Orders. These rules included prohibitions against striking locks, dams, hydropower plants, fishing boats, houseboats, and naval craft in certain areas; prohibitions against strikes in certain defined areas such as the Chinese Communist (ChiCom) buffer zone or the Hanoi/Haiphong restricted areas; conditions under which targets might be struck, such as validation requirements, when FACs were required, distances from motorable roads; and conditions under which napalm could be used, when CS was authorized, when ground fire could be returned. Although, in theory, these three types of rules were distinct, in practice, they were almost always referred to collectively as Rules of Engagement. This report retains this policy, since the formal distinctions were not always honored in message traffic and further, a report unifying the three types of limitations presents a compact picture of the restraints upon airpower that were in existence.

Environmental noise at the property line due to an industrial operation is one element that determines the minimum site area requirements for a new plant. Residents in communities surrounding a plant hear the noise created within the plant that is attenuated by the building and the size of the buffer zone between the plant and the community. In suburban and rural areas where the ambient background noise may be low, sites for heavy industry plants become exceedingly large if insulated metal type siding is used for the building walls to achieve a satisfactory sound level at the property line. When large sites are not available, or if the price of land is high, the site area can be considerably reduced by the use of masonry or multilayered insulated metal types of siding. For a plant with an interior noise level of 90 dBA, the site area for a plant with masonry siding may be less than 10% of the site area for the same plant with insulated metal siding. The use of high sound transmission loss walls for plant buildings necessitates that noise from other sources such as fans, ventilating system, steam vents, etc., be reduced to meet the property line sound criterion. This paper presents a graphical method for estimating plant site area and setback requirements based upon maximum allowable property line noise levels, plant noise levels, and type of building siding selected for the construction. In addition, a method is proposed for determining the economic break‐even point for purchasing additional property as an acoustical buffer zone versus the cost of improving the sound transmission loss of the building siding.

The effect of lateral movement on minimum infiltration capacity was examined using small flooded plots of various sizes without buffer zones and using small sprayed and flooded plots surrounded by wetted buffer zones. When no buffer zones were used, the minimum infiltration capacity of a given soil decreased with increasing size of plot and there was a corresponding increase in the fraction of applied water remaining beneath the plot at the conclusion of the trial. An expression for the relation between plot size and lateral movement is discussed. Although buffer zones around flooded plots effected some reduction in lateral movement, the measurements were subject to considerable error and the method was considered unduly cumbersome for routine work. In a spray infiltrometer procedure, a sprayed buffer zone surrounding a small test plot was found to be effective on the soils examined. When all data from flooded plots with and without buffer zones were examined, it was found that the minimum infiltration capacity of a soil varied inversely with the fraction of applied water remaining beneath the plot a t the conclusion of a trial. When the minimum infiltration capacity was multiplied by the corresponding value of this fraction, the effect of lateral movement was reduced considerably. It is shown that results from small plots then approximate more closely to those to be expected from large ones and there is also a reduction in variability due to causes other than variation in size of plot. Limitations in the use of this correction factor are discussed fully and the general limitations of infiltration data derived from small plots are briefly considered.