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Seeking to promote appreciation of the culture of American Indians, Black Americans, Mexican Americans, and Oriental Americans, this 701-item annotated bibliography with references from 1929 to 1970 gives citations related to the history, culture, and mores of these ethnic groups. The bibliography includes classified (by subject and usage level) citations of 666 books as well as citations of 27 films and 8 recordings recommended for use in the elementary and secondary schools. An author-title index is also included. (MJB)

The recent anthropological literature contains both linear and non-linear models of acculturation. The non-linear model assumes that acculturation generates biculturality, that is, the addition of a new culture to the old one, whereas the linear model involves replacement of the old culture by a new one. Biculturality in the non-linear model gives freedom of choice, whereas the linear model implies culture conflict. The non-linear model stresses that acculturation processes are contingent upon social environment and therefore should be seen as a function of social reference groups. The linear model seems to take for granted the direct and entire embracement of the individual by a culture. This paper attempts to reinforce the three points of the non-linear mode--biculturality selectivity, and social contingency--while accepting what is valid in the linear model. As far as Issei (first-generation) immigrants from Japan and their Nisei children in Hawaii are concerned, social contingency attains full significance: the Japanese individual is trained morally as well as psychologically to be sensitive to the social setting. The native culture here facilitates acculturation, although the reverse is not true. This is demonstrated by analysis of the content of moral education textbooks used by Japanese language schools, expressed attitudes and opinions of school principals, and Nisei informants in various professional fields. (Author/JM)

The purpose of this paper is to discuss in brief six racial and ethnic minority groups in the United States, in order to demonstrate how selected cultural variables may intrude in the counseling relationship. American Indians present such problems as language difficulties, taciturnity, and suspiciousness. In working with Americans of African descent, the counselor is apt to encounter two kinds of problems, the first related to the counseling process and the second related to the product, goal, or outcome. Because of long geographical isolation and strong resistance to change, residents of Appalachia may be considered an ethnic minority. They, in the counseling relationship, present cultural barriers related to listening, personalism, and language. Spanish heritage groups introduce a language barrier, demand for respect, machismo, and suspicion as sources of difficulty in counseling. Since American Jews constitute a cultural community, the counselor unfamiliar with the ethos of the group may be ineffectual helping them. To be effective, the non-Japanese counselor needs to understand several aspects of the Japanese American personality: envy and shame, modesty and reserve, and generation differences. (Author/JM)

This bibliography is another in a continuing series of ERIC/IRCD publications intended to retrieve references to recent journal articles, addresses, books, and project reports focusing on the social, political and educational development of various United States minority groups. Major emphasis is given to material, published since 1960, regarding Japanese-Americans and Chinese-Americans since the bulk of the literature on Orientals deals with these two groups. The bibliography's organization is similar to the general pattern of the literature: first, articles about social, economic and educational development , with educational development being most recently emphasized. With respect to geographical location, literature initially focuses on Orientals living in their homelands, and later turns to Oriental and American comparisons, and lastly to Orientals living in the United States. Because of the general scarcity of recent literature on this subgroup, some dissertations are included in this bibliography. An effort has been made to provide detailed annotation and where possible, complete abstracts and alternative sources. ED numbers following some items indicate that the reference is also available from the ERIC system. (Author/JM)

This booklet on human relations attempts to convey to teachers the meaning and intent of "learning to live together." Separate sections deal with what teachers need to know about blacks, American Indians, Mexican-Americans, Puerto Ricans, the disadvantaged, Asian-Americans, Jews, and the many Caucasian ethnic groups. The focus in each race is on their history, social problems, differences within the race, and social differences due to past and present experiences, and in the case of the disadvantaged, on nutrition, environmental influences, and socioeconomic background. (Author/RJ)

Differing patterns of abilities among high school males of four ethnic groups were investigated, as reflected in the interrelationships of scores on a multi-test aptitude battery. If such differences in patterns of ability exist among these groups, their existence and nature should be revealed in the interrelationships of the various test scores for each group. A 9-test Project Access battery was administered, along with a biographical inventory, to 18,000 junior-year students in Los Angeles, Memphis, and Washington, D.C. The ethnic groups studied were Black, White, Mexican-American, and Oriental, and subjects from all four groups were from low socioeconomic backgrounds. The tests measured word meaning, inductive reasoning, comparing mathematical quantities, spatial scanning, reading comprehension, grammar, following complex directions, geometric analogies, and associative memory. Principle axes procedures were applied to the correlation matrices within each ethnic group. The first five components within each group were then rotated, using Varimax procedures. The original correlation matrices are presented in the Appendix. The results of similarity among the factor loading patterns indicate that essentially the same patterns of abilities are demonstrated regardless of the ethnic identity of the examinee. (LH)

A racial and ethnic survey of California public schools, conducted by the State Department of Education in October 1971, included not only a count of pupils in each school but also a count of professional staff by racial and ethnic group categories. This report presents the results of the survey of teachers, principals, and other professional staff, the first such State survey since October 1967. While nearly 29 percent of all public school pupils in California were members of racial and ethnic minority groups, minorities were represented by 10.5 percent of the teaching staff and 6.5 percent of the principals. The Spanish-surnamed accounted for 16 percent of the pupils, but only 2.6 percent of classroom teachers, 2.4 percent of principals, and 2.7 percent of total professional staff at schools. Blacks comprised 9.3 percent of all pupils, 5.1 percent of teachers, and 2.9 percent of principals. Asians provided the only example of parity, with 2.2 percent of pupils and 2.2 percent of teachers, but 0.6 percent of principals. Asian and Spanish-surnamed pupils and professionals alike were about twice the State average in their proportions in minority-group isolated schools. Black pupils and professionals were nearly four times the state average at such schools. (Author/JM)

In October 1971, as in four previous years, school districts provided the California State Department of Education with a count of pupils in each school by racial and ethnic group categories. The survey found that 29 percent of the 4.5 million pupils in California public schools were members of racial and ethnic minority groups. Mexican Americans and others of Spanish surname comprised 16 percent. More than 9 percent were black, more than two percent were Asian and about 1.5 percent were American Indian, Filipino, or members of other nonwhite minorities. For the first time since these surveys began, there was a statewide decrease in the total number of pupils. Minority-group enrollment continued to increase. Since the 1967 Survey, Spanish-surnamed pupils had increased by 109,001, black pupils by 50,795, and other minority-group pupils by 32,210. Applying the measure of imbalance stated in the California Administrative Code, there were 1,697 schools in 1971-72 which deviated by more than 15 percent from the mean in their districts for any racial or ethnic group, including the Anglo-majority group; more than 1.3 million children were in attendance at those schools, including 63 percent of all the black pupils in the State and 42 percent of all the Spanish-surnamed pupils. At the same time there were 1,215 schools in which minority-group pupils comprised 50 percent or more of total enrollment. (Author/JM)

The primary objective of this study was to determine the most effective of three spelling programs for sixth graders coming from two culturally different and racially distinct areas of a large metropolitan school district. A secondary objective was to examine any differences which might exist between inner-city and suburban children in the attainment of spelling skills. A third purpose was to measure the growth in spelling achievement from pretest to posttest for all subjects. Three spelling strategies were used as treatments: (1) teacher constructed strategy; (2) Kottmeyer strategy, involving a series of eight grade level workbooks which sequentially present the phonetic and structural characteristics of words; and, (3) Hanna strategy, which assumes that the phoneme-Grapheme correspondence can produce reliable spelling generalizations. Two hundred and sixteen graders served as subjects. Half of the subjects came from an inner city elementary school with an ethnic composition of 88 percent Negro and 12 percent Korean and Japanese. The other 108 subjects came from a suburban elementary school which draws from a middle to upper-middle class Jewish and Caucasian community. A pretest-posttest design was employed. There were 36 subjects in each group. There was an equal number of boys and girls in each group. (Author/JM)

The universe of Japanese immigrants selected for this study consisted of a diverse group such as the kika nisei (returned second generation), the yobiyose (sponsored immigrant), and the gijutsu imin (technical immigrant). Each group possessed different characteristics. This present paper is limited in scope to the yobiyose and gijutsu imin because it is extremely difficult to determine objectively the exact status of the kika nisei with respect to immigration. In contrast to the pre-war Japanese immigrants composed mainly of farmers and fishermen, the post-war immigrants consisted of those with a diverse range of occupations such as craftsman, technicians, musicians, clerks, scientists, engineers, artists, and architects, to mention only a few. Differences in the occupational skills possessed by the various immigrant groups resulted in different adjustment processes during their initial settling-in period in Canada. Some immigrants were able to secure immediate employment and others were not. Consequently, the characteristics which the immigrants brought with them from Japan became an important factor for both employment and integration in the new host society. (Author/JM)

The purpose of this packet is to assist teachers as they individualize instruction to meet the needs, interests, and abilities of seventh grade students. The activities in this unit are mostly inquiry and social science oriented. There are three major ideas behind the packet: 1) The first generation immigrants closely observed the customs of the country in which they grew up; 2) The first generation faced many difficulties in adjusting to the new environment; and, 3) As the immigrants became Americanized and as second and third generation grew up in Hawaii, many old customs began to disappear. Each lesson in the packet contains one of the major ideas, behavioral objectives, instructions, and learning activities. The remainder of the packet consists of student readings about Hawaii's immigrants. (Author/AWW)

Studying the lexical borrowing of the Japanese community living in Hawaii inspires several hypotheses in the field of sociolinguistics. The use of borrowed words is a linguistic device to create a new Japanese dialect--Hawaiian Japanese. The borrowed words reflect the process and degree of social and psychological adjustment to the new cultural environment. Words of conjunctive and disjunctive concepts are individually borrowed to meet various lexical needs; words of relational concepts are borrowed as conceptual systems. From the sociolinguistic point of view, the most important words in a language are those related to kinship relations, social relations, time, and quantity. Further investigation of lexical borrowings in other geographical areas would prove interesting. The study of lexical borrowing is worthwhile for the field of foreign language teaching. (VM)

This resource guide, prepared by teachers, is designed to incorporate minority group studies into the district's social studies curriculum at levels 4, 5, and 8 as a start toward goals specified in the state law. Introductory material discusses the California Education Code requirements, local district policy, and the work of the curriculum development committee. The goal of this course is to offer children more complete information about five minority groups in the United States: Afro-Americans, American Indians, Chinese-Americans, Japenese-Americans, and Mexican-Americans, with an additional unit on Prejudice. Each unit is concept oriented; various topics to be explored are outlined with the appropriate grade level indicated. Objectives for the unit are given; materials of instruction and learning activities are described. Some teaching techniques used are: observation, field trip experiences, dramatizations and role playing, individual research, small and large group activities, educational games, critical thinking and comparative analysis. Resource materials are listed in the guide with student materials included for some units; in addition, a district bibliography, Materials Pertaining to Three Minority Groups: Negro-Americans, Mexican-Americans, and Oriental-Americans, is to be used. (Author/JSB)

The purpose of this project was to develop a non-verbal self-administering values inventory appropriate for children grades one to three. Children from five ethnic groups were administered a 60-item picture inventory designed to measure dimensions of value based on needs. Factor analyses of the resulting item inter-correlations for the total sample revealed underlying dimensions of a sociological nature. Factor analyses within ethnic groups revealed consistency with respect to most factors. Item analyses were performed on the basis of sex, grade level, and ethnic groups to identify significant differences with respect to item responses. Findings suggest the necessity for a re-evaluation of the traditional approach to educating young children. The instrument identifies dimensions of values which are of use to educators. The structured preliminary interview, the inventory, and tables presenting the data and findings are included. See also TM 000 614-615. (CK)

This final substantive report includes the working papers presented by the American and Japanese participants, notes on discussions, a summary of an address by William Labov, and draft proposals for joint sociolinguistic research. The working papers involve several sociolinguistic issues in Japanese-American and Japanese culture. The American papers concern lexical borrowing by Japanese Americans in Hawaii, phonological reduction rules for evaluation in sociolinguistic analysis, sociolinguistic factors inhibiting Japanese-American communication, language and social change, and mutual understanding between Japanese and Americans. The Japanese papers treat cultural comparisons, language behavior and cultural patterns, the ethnography of self-reference and address in Japanese, approaches to studying contrasting cultures, and the use of Japanese invective words or curses. References and notes are included with the papers along with a summary of the discussions that followed the presentation of each paper. (VM)

Previous studies have shown that American mothers, in contrast to Japanese, do more lively chatting to their babies, and that as a result, the American babies have a generally higher level of vocalization and, particularly, they respond with greater amounts of happy vocalization and gross motor activity than do Japanese babies. Thus, it appears that because of different styles of caretaking in the two cultures, by three-to-four months of age the infants have already acquired culturally distinctive behaviors, and that this has happened out of awareness and well before the development of language. This interpretation is challengeable on two grounds: (1) behavioral differences may be genetically determines; and, (2) social change happens within a particular human group, resulting in significant shifts in baby behavior. Comparable data obtained from Japanese-American mothers of the third generation and infants can provide information to help settle both of these arguments. Naturalistic observations were made on two consecutive days during 1961-1964 in the homes of 30 Japanese and 30 white American first-born three-to-four month old infants equally divided by sex and living in intact middle-class urban families. Data on the ordinary daily life of the infant were obtained by time-sampling. The behavior of the Japanese-Americans is apparently closer to that of the Americans than that of the Japanese.(JM)

Seventy-two publications, ranging from ERIC documents to journal articles are annotated in this selective bibliography, one of 18 in a series. It is designed for educators who are developing and teaching curriculum materials that deal with American subcultures and their relationships. Included in the selections are program descriptions and resource materials. Others in the series are: SO 002 223 and SO 002 224. (DJB)

This project was undertaken to provide more information on the condition of Asians. More specifically, it sought to: (1) obtain descriptive and demographic data on Asians; (2) determine the extent of usage of existing social services. Structural and attitudinal factors which facilitate or inhibit usage were examined; (3) identify what Asians perceive to be the needs of their community and explore the potential for organizing the community on the basis of these needs; again, various factors which may have contributed to this potential for organizing the community were examined; and, (4) collect data on the younger generation of Asians; in this way, a cross-generational comparison of attitudes and values could be made. The data were obtained from interviewing a sample of Asian families in the Sacramento area. In Sacramento, the three main groups of Asians are the Chinese, the Japanese, and the Filipinos. These are the only Asian groups included in the sample. A total of 302 families was interviewed: 148 were Chinese, 102 were Japanese, and 52 were Filipino. Two Chinese, one male and one female, and two Japanese, one male and one female, and one male Filipino were selected as interviewers. In all cases, these interviewers were bilingual. Each interviewer was responsible for interviewing his own ethnic group. (Author/JM)

This paper discusses the historical conditions and socio-political factors affecting the development of Japanese language schools in Hawaii. It traces the development of these schools from the time they were established to prepare Japanese children for their eventual return to Japan through years of legal battles and disfavor to the present, when the schools enjoy full rights to teach Japanese but suffer from a lack of student enthusiasm and motivation because of American acculturation on the part of the third and fourth generation Japanese-American children. (VM)

This is a selected bibliography of some good and some outstanding audio-visual educational materials in the library of the Educational Materials Bureau, Audio-Visual Education Section, that may be considered of particular interest in the study of Asians and Asian-Americans. The bibliography is arranged alphabetically within the following subject areas: I. Asians: General; East Asia--China, Japan, Korea; South Asia--Ceylon, India, Pakistan; Southeast Asia--Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Indonesia and Malaya, Philippine Islands, Thailand, Viet Nam. II. Asian-Americans: Continental United States and Pacific Protectorates: Chinese-Americans, Japanese-Americans, Hawaii, Oceania (Samoa--Solomon Islands). The number of copies held of these materials is limited and many are exceptionally popular. Booking is always on a first-come, first-served basis and within the limits of the Audio-Visual Education Section's manpower, delivery facilities, plant, and available funds. (Author/JM)

The approach of this publication to the study of minority cultures is through an introduction to the literature of certain minority groups in the United States: native Americans, black Americans, Chinese, Japanese, and Puerto Ricans. It is intended primarily as a guide for libraries, library school students, library schools, other educators, and other students who are interested in bibliographic and other resources for the study of various minorities. Because this publication is prepared in the absence of a suitable textbook or guide to the bibliography of minority culture, it aims to lead the student of minority bibliography to the literature and the library collections on this subject. In the variety of subject areas covered, the work is immediately regarded as interdisciplinary as well as intercultural. The work utilizes a topical or structural approach, with each section containing a general overview of the particular minority group in question, a discussion of representative library collections which house significant resources on the topic, and an introduction to the subject approach to the study of the particular minority group. Following this discussion, a selective bibliography is given. (Author)

The guide, a revision of the one issued in Winter 1971, lists ethnic studies materials in the Learning Resources Center of Shoreline Community College, Seattle, Washington. The bibliography was compiled to help students locate ethnic materials, and as a tool to help the library assess its collection. Most materials cited were published in the 60's and 70's. The bibliography is arranged alphabetically by subject in the following ethnic groups: Afro-Americans; Asian-Americans; Mexican-Americans; and Native-Americans. The Afro-American materials comprise about one-half of the guide. Within each ethnic group the listing is by type of material and includes reference materials, books and microforms, periodicals and newspapers, and media materials. Works on Africa and Mexico are listed separately. A section on general works which pertain to all ethnic groups and race relations is also provided. Information for each item cited consists of author, publishing company, date and Dewey Decimal Classification number. (RM)

Children's fiction written between 1945 and 1962 was analyzed for current stereotypes of minority Americans, and the results were compared with related studies of adult fiction and school textbooks. Two analytic instruments were applied to 114 minority characters selected from 42 children's books about American Indians, Chinese, Japanese, Negroes, and Spanish Americans currently living in the United States. In this sampling, virtually no negative stereotypes of minority Americans were found; the differences in race, creed, and customs of minority citizens were found to be dignified far more than in either adult magazine fiction or textbooks; and similarities in behavior, attitudes, and values between majority and minority Americans were emphasized rather than their differences. (Recommendations for action to be taken on the basis of the results, proposals for further experimental study, and a table ranking the verbal stereotypes of the 114 minority American characters are included.) (JB)

The purpose of this study is to analyze the reasons behind governmental decisions leading to the "English-only" instruction policy in the public schools and the recent softening of this policy by various state and local governments. The author's thesis is that such policies have considered neither the advantages which the child may have if he learns in his native tongue nor the willingness of the non-English speaking groups to learn English. He finds, rather, that official acceptance or rejection of bilingualism in American schools has depended on whether the group involved has been considered politically and socially acceptable, and that the decisions to impose English as the sole language of instruction have reflected the popular attitudes towards that particular ethnic group and the degree of hostility evidenced toward that group's natural development. The author analyzes the experience of five groups: German-Americans, Mexican-Americans, Japanese-Americans, American Indians, and Puerto Ricans in Puerto Rico. He shows the different behavior manifested by the government at various times towards these groups and how the requirement that English be the exclusive school language was imposed or withdrawn as government policy changed. Finally he examines the Bilingual Education Act and what it suggests as a government policy for the future. (FWB)

Intended to aid the secondary school teacher in recommending appropriate works to students, this annotated bibliography by and about black Americans, North American Indians, Mexican Americans, and Asian Americans gives detailed information and evaluations on themes, literary quality, and intellectual and emotional levels of materials. The bibliography, based on the standards of the booklist "We Build Together," is organized according to literary types--novels, short stories, poetry, drama, folk tales and legends, biographies, autobiographies, essays, letters, speeches, and anthologies--with every selection intended to foster the development of better self-concepts for minority group students and to contribute to a greater understanding for majority culture students. Availability of paperback editions is noted. A separate bibliography for teachers and suggestions for thematic units are included. (MF)

Comparative studies of education, discrimination, and poverty in cross-cultural context are held as contributing towards a better understanding of the social nature of poverty and the complex processes of cultural transmission, continuity, and change. Seven strategies or models of research are suggested: (1) study of secondary and tertiary socialization in schools; (2) inquiry into the relationship of minority group language and conceptual styles to learning; (3) consideration of education's relationship to needs of the adolescent in societal initiation and personal identity; (4) study of patterns of minority group interaction with school; (5) systematic description of options and requirements for diversity offered through the schools, such as counseling, discipline, vocational-academic curricula, and bilingual and bicultural schooling; and, (7) study of education as a social problem, i.e. how the school fails, instead of how students fail. (KG)

This essay on the psychological costs and profits of biculturalism attempts to clear away some of the confusion surrounding the concept of "ethnic identity" as it is applied to Americans of Japanese ancestry; and to suggest ways in which it might be used effectively--both in psychocultural research and in public education. In the course of a comparative study of aging and inter-generational relations among Japanese Americans, Mexican Americans, and Anglo-Americans in San Francisco, the authors developed the concepts discussed in this paper. The traditional culture (ancestral traditions in the country of origin) and the subculture (Japanese-American community culture) of the Japanese Americans are discussed. In addition, ethnic consciousness in relation to identity and self-image is explored. Particularly, differing attitudes toward the Japanese-American relocation during the war and other minority groups are examined. [Not available in hard copy due to marginal legibility of original document.] (Author/JW)

Americans of Japanese ancestry rank higher than any other physically identifiable subgroup on positive attributes and lowest on negative ones. The thesis of this paper is that their success depends more on the value orientations that differentiate the two groups than upon those held in common. Data were obtained from a survey of 2200 pupils enrolled in grades six, nine, and twelve in 23 racially-mixed Los Angeles schools. Comparison of Japanese-American and Anglo samples on value orientation variables support the hypothesis that the comparatively high achievement of Japanese-Americans is related more to traditional Japanese cultural values than to acquired American values. While the two groups are similar in appreciation of the value of education and the importance of peers, the Japanese-Americans are more expressive toward school, have less belief in individual action, and have higher occupational aspirations. Japanese-Americans appear to be less acculturated to the values of the American middle class than generally believed, and explanations which rely on theories of acculturation do not adequately account for their success in American society. (Author/CJ)

The teacher resource guide for grades K through 12 was developed by a multi ethnic committee of educators to comply with the California Education code. "Instruction in the social sciences shall include the early history of California and a study of the role and contributions of American Negroes, American Indians, Mexicans, and other ethnic groups to the economic, political, social and cultural development of California and the United States". The main concept for each unit is identified at the top of each page and further developed in a content column. In addition, the learning activities are identified along with suggested resources. Extensive bibliographies include such things as: books, audiovisual materials, journal articles, pamphlets, picture books, other resource guides, curriculum bulletins, unpublished manuscripts, reports, and human resources. However, those who wish to use this guide should select, expand, or enrich the material to meet the unique local needs of teachers and students. (SBE)

Focusing on the forcible relocation of West Coast Japanese-American citizens during World War II, the unit poses the question: Can democratic ideals and processes survive the conditions of total war? Some aspects of this episode considered are: public and official reactions to the Pearl Harbor attack; racial antipathies underlying the decision for relocation; and the consequences of relocation not only for those interned, but for all Americans, whose civil rights are threatened by the Constitutional precedents it set. Designed primarily for college-bound students, the unit is also suitable for above-average junior high students. (See SO 000 161 for a listing of related documents.) (Author/SBE)

The use of the "traditional passive" form of the Japanese verb indicates to a native speaker that the subject of the verb was involuntarily subjected to something unpleasant. When combined with the causative form (passive causative), it is felt that the subject of the sentence was "caused to" take an action and is therefore not responsible for the act nor its outcome. These meanings must be expressed in English by adding whole clauses or phrases. It was hypothesized that the availability of these constructions in Japanese would cause native speakers to interpret interpersonal events by using these passive verb forms while speakers of English would not. In a translation study, the original and the translated versions of 20 Japanese and 21 English short stories were compared. It was found that the English-speaking translators tended to disregard the connotative meaning of the traditional passive while Japanese translators tended to read such meanings into the English original. A perception study was based on cartoons of interpersonal conflict situations to test whether Japanese subjects would tend to attribute responsibility for the negative outcome to others rather than themselves. In this test the overall difference between Japanese and Americans was significant at the .001 level in the predicted direction. In related tests, however, Americans who had studied Japanese used the traditional passive about as much as did native speakers. (JK)

In the translation part of this study, 22 Japanese short stories were translated into English by native speakers of English and 20 English short stories were translated into Japanese by Japanese. The passive passages in the Japanese version were classified into either adversative or non-adversative passive. (See related documents AL 001 564 and AL 001 565.) They were then compared with the corresponding passages in English to determine equivalence of translation. Distortion in translation was found to be in the direction of the translator's way of perceiving things in terms of his first language. The perception study compared the perception of Japanese with that of Americans by using stick figure cartoons depicting interpersonal conflict situations with negative outcomes. As hypothesized, Japanese were found to have a greater tendency than Americans to attribute responsibility to others. In order to separate the role of language from other crucial cultural factors in the perception of interpersonal events, 20 monolingual (English-speaking) Americans of Japanese ancestory and 90 Germans in Berlin were also tested. No significant differences were found between the Americans and Germans; but the English-speaking Japanese-Americans fell in between the Americans and the Japanese, closer to the Japanese. (DO)