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This paper is the second of a two-part series that presents experimental data and analysis on the liquid nitrogen quenching heat transfer process of a stainless-steel tube with an inner surface low-thermal conductivity thin-film coating. This paper focuses on the effects of different flow directions and two tube wall thicknesses. Additionally, this paper also provides an analysis on the chilldown thermal efficiency of the quenching process. Three flow directions with four different inner surface coating modifications, and three tube wall thicknesses were examined. The experimental data covers the Reynolds numbers ranging from 3500 to 140,000. The chilldown efficiency, along with chilldown time and LN 2 (liquid nitrogen) mass consumption were analyzed to assess the overall performance of the LN 2 line chilldown process. For thin tube wall cases, the chilldown efficiencies cover a range between 3% and 41%, and the maximum chilldown efficiency value is found for the tube with 3 L coating at Re = 5278 in the vertical up flow direction. For thick wall tube cases, the efficiencies cover a range between 4% and 52%, and the maximum chilldown efficiency value was found for the tube with 4 L coating at Re = 5308 in the vertical up flow direction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• 1 Flow and boiling heat transfer in a 5 mm tube were studied experimentally. • 2 Heat transfer enhancement is obviously founded in the region where x e < 0.05. • 3 New empirical correlations are developed based on the experimental data. • 4 New correlations have higher prediction accuracy than the existing correlations. Experimental investigation on flow boiling heat transfer in a small tube under high system pressure has been conducted in this study. The test-section is constructed with a 316L stainless steel tube. The inner diameter and heated length of the test-section are 5 mm and 930 mm, respectively. The working fluid is deionized water. The operating conditions of the experiments are as follows, the mass flux from 548 to 978 kg/(m2·s), the wall heat flux from 136 to 238 kW/m2, and the system pressure from 1.0 to 2.9 MPa. The experimental results showed that the inlet subcooling mainly affects the onset of nucleate boiling, but its impact on the heat transfer coefficient at the same vapor quality is almost negligible. The heat transfer coefficient increases with the increase of mass flux and wall heat flux, especially in the region where x e < 0.02. The average heat transfer coefficient is higher under high system pressure owing to the variation of the thermophysical properties. Additionally, the existing flow and heat transfer correlations cannot predict the flow boiling heat transfer coefficient and frictional pressure drop in the experiments accurately enough. Therefore, the new flow and heat transfer correlations are developed based on the experimental data in this paper, and the mean absolute deviation of the flow boiling heat transfer correlation and frictional pressure drop correlation are 13.3% and 12.1%, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A simplified two-fluid model is proposed for critical two-phase flow in microchannels. • The model preserves precision while incorporating fewer constitutive relations. • Proposed an enhanced metastable liquid nucleation model, achieving precise predictions of nucleation pressure. • Advance the understanding of critical flow in microchannels. Critical flow phenomena are present in many chemical engineering processes, such as microchannel heat exchangers, modeling of jet pumps, nuclear safety analysis, and various industrial facilities that involve subcooled or two-phase pressurized fluids. This paper presents a simplified, reliable two-fluid model for accurately simulating critical flow in microchannels. This study develops a five-equation two-fluid model by constructing a mixed energy equation based on the assumption of metastable liquid phase and saturated gas phase. The model utilizes an improved metastable liquid nucleation model as the gas–liquid phase transition boundary to obtain a more accurate flashing inception. It also uses fewer interfacial constitutive relation equations to reduce the occurrence of unstable solutions. The improved nucleation model is validated using experimental data from previous researchers, with prediction errors controlled within 10%. Furthermore, the five-equation model demonstrates substantial improvements in numerical convergence compared to its six-equation counterpart. By comparing critical mass flux predictions, along-channel pressure variations, and interfacial transfer terms, the five-equation model effectively mitigates instability issues observed in the six-equation model while maintaining prediction accuracy. As a result, this model boasts a broader range of applicability and excels in accurately predicting critical flow, even under more complex conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Optimize the thermosyphon loop thermal performance by controlling loop wettability. • Long-term effective hydrophilic and hydrophobic modification method was determined. • The optimum wall wettability under different filling ratios was clarified. • The optimized R loop is reduced by 6.9% to 53.5% under different filling ratios. The behavior of vapor-liquid two-phase transport within the riser of the two-phase thermosyphon loop significantly impacts the heat transfer process from the evaporation to the condensation, as well as the circulation velocity, thus playing a crucial role in the heat transfer performance. However, existing research has predominantly focused on optimizing the performance of the evaporator, overlooking the optimization of vapor-liquid two-phase flow patterns and transport characteristics within the loop. This paper aims to optimize the heat transfer performance of the two-phase thermosyphon loop by controlling the wall wettability of the loop. The strategy employed involves modifying the wettability of the riser to regulate the two-phase flow within the loop, while visualization techniques are utilized to investigate the influence of riser wettability on the vapor-liquid two-phase distribution and heat transfer performance of the two-phase thermosyphon loop. The findings reveal that the impact of wall wettability on flow behavior and heat transfer performance within the loop varies significantly with changes in the filling ratio. This paper sheds some light on the riser wettability of two-phase thermosyphon loops to optimize the thermal performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • A one-dimensional whole-loop CFB dynamic model was established with the flow properties. • The model explicitly depicts the solids throughput behavior at the cyclone and standpipe. • Factors affecting the dynamic characteristics of CFB boiler under load regulation were discussed. • An optimization on a 135 MW CFB boiler demonstrated a maximum load ramp rate of about 4 %/min. CFB boilers face an increasing significance for load change rate in China. However, there is currently a lack of mechanistic understanding on limitation on fast peak shaving. Based on the mass and energy balance in the full loop, this paper conducts a dynamic model to describe the coupling effect of gas–solid two-phase flow, heat transfer, and combustion processes under load regulation conditions. In particular, the material throughput pattern of cyclone and standpipe are systemically described. Finally, the model was validated by field test data in a 135 MW commercial CFB boiler. On this basis, the impact of factors such as the draining ash strategy and adding/discharging circulating ash on the load regulation characteristics of the boiler were deeply explored, and a comprehensive optimization solution was proposed. The results showed that the boiler's ramp could be maximized to about 4 %/min after adopting this solution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is the first of a two-part series that presents experimental data and analysis on the liquid nitrogen quenching heat transfer process of a stainless-steel tube with an inner surface low-thermal conductivity thin-film coating. The experimental data covers a wide range of flow mass fluxes (43 to 1077 kg/m2s). The experiments were conducted using test tubes with four different coating thicknesses to investigate the effects of various Teflon coating thicknesses. An analysis of the chilldown time and LN 2 mass consumption data are presented to evaluate the effects of the flow mass flux, axial distance from the tube inlet, and coating layer thickness. The chilldown time decreases with increasing flow Re. However, the chilldown mass consumption increases with increasing flow Re. In general, the larger the flow Reynolds number, the lower the percentage reduction in chilldown time is observed. For the percentage reduction in the chilldown time by the coating, the minimum is 27.8% for the tube with 7-layer coating at flow of Re = 100,000 and the maximum is 61.3% for the tube with 14-layer coating at flow of Re = 10,000. The percentage reduction in mass consumption due to coating falls in the range between 35.3% and 54.1%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Physics-Informed neural networks (PINNs) are used for single and two-phase flows. • The study investigates the rising bubble problem with and without heat transfer. • The pertinent physics of wake interaction and thermal boundary layer are discussed. • Physics-Informed neural networks are agnostic to geometry and fluid properties. • The maximum error in the position of the centre of mass by PINN is less than 2.8 %. This paper presents data-driven simulations of two-phase fluid processes with heat transfer. A Physics-Informed Neural Network (PINN) was applied to capture the behaviour of phase interfaces in two-phase flows and model the hydrodynamics and heat transfer of flow configurations representative of established numerical test cases. The developed PINN approach was trained on simulation data derived from physically based Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations with interface capturing. The present study considers fundamental problems, including tracking the rise of a single gas bubble in a denser fluid and exploring the heat transfer in the wake of a bubble rising close to a heated wall. Tracking of a rising bubble phase interface of fluids with disparate properties was performed, revealing a maximum error of only 5.2% at the interface edge and a maximum error of 2.8% at the position of the centre of mass. Inferred (hidden variable) flows are studied in addition to a purely extrapolative inverse isothermal bubble case. When no velocity data was supplied, velocity field predictions remained accurate. Rise of an inferred isothermal bubble with unseen fluid properties was found to produce a maximum mean-squared error of 0.28 and centre of mass error of 1.25%. For the case of the rising bubble with a hot wall, the maximum error in the temperature domain using specified boundary conditions was 6.8%, while the bubble position analysis reveals a maximum positional error of 3.6%. These results demonstrate that PINN is agnostic to geometry and fluid properties when studying the combined effects of convection and buoyancy on two-phase flows for the first time. This work serves as a starting point for PINN in multiphase cases involving heat transfer over a range of geometries. Eventually, PINN will be used in such cases to provide solutions for forward, inverse, and extrapolative cases. Each of which represent a dramatic saving in computational cost compared to traditional CFD. Contours of volume fraction (α) and temperature (T*) predicted by the CFD (Top) and PINN (Bottom) for the evolution of flow showing how the rising bubble influences the thermal boundary layer on the wall. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A review of experimental and CFD methods used to analyze the thermal-hydraulic characteristics of sub-channels in rod bundle geometries is presented. • Both adiabatic and boiling two-phase flow studies are examined. • The effects of the design and flow parameters on the two-phase flow hydrodynamics and heat transfer performance are summarized. • Based on previous numerical studies, a basic CFD model for two-phase flows in rod bundle geometries is proposed. Thermal-hydraulic analysis of two-phase flow plays a crucial role in the optimal design of nuclear fuel assemblies and in nuclear safety. This paper presents the state of the art in two-phase flow hydrodynamics and heat transfer in nuclear fuel assemblies. A comprehensive review of experimental and CFD methods used in the last 30 years to analyze the thermal-hydraulic characteristics of sub-channels in rod bundle geometries under different flow conditions (adiabatic and boiling two-phase flow) is presented. The effects of design parameters, e.g. rod-pitch length, mixing vane angle, and flow parameters, e.g. pressure, mass flux and heat flux, on flow hydrodynamics and heat transfer performance are summarized. In addition, the capabilities of CFD modelling of two-phase in rod bundles are discussed. Moreover, based on the existing studies, some recommendations for future studies are given. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Obtained local surface temperature (T w), boiling curves and liquid loss rate (m loss). • Heat transfer rate (Q w) and m loss increase markedly at onset of nucleate boiling. • Jet outlet velocity (v) affects Q w and m loss more obviously than impact height (H). • Effects of v and H on T w are more significant at non-phase transition stage. • Growing of Q w and M loss slows down at anaphase of nucleate boiling. Combining the benefits of jet impact and phase-transition heat transfer, jet impact boiling has been widely adopted in industrial scenarios. Notably, owing to limitations of high-velocity jets, such as high impact stress and pumping pressure in liquid circuits, low-velocity jet impacting deserves more attention and explorations. In this paper, under an atmospheric environment with wall heating temperatures ranging from 36 °C to 128 °C, the two-phase flow and heat transfer characteristics (local surface temperature, boiling curves and liquid loss rate) of low-velocity jet impacting on a cylindrical surface are investigated by experiment, followed by the analysis on the effects of jet outlet velocity and impact height. The findings reveal that, with the increase of heat transfer rate, the heat transfer regimes in sequence are non-phase transition (single-phase convection and air-liquid two-phase convection) and nucleate boiling. The influences of jet impact height and outlet velocity on local surface temperatures are pronounced at non-phase transition stage. In impact region, along with average superheat, the growth rates of heat transfer rate and liquid loss rate increase significantly from non-phase transition to nucleate boiling stage, and slow down at anaphase of nucleate boiling stage. Interestingly, the increase in outlet velocity delays the onset of slowdown in growth of liquid loss rate to some extent. Overall, the heat transfer rate and liquid loss rate are significantly enhanced at higher jet outlet velocity of 0.60 m/s, but not affected significantly by impact height. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A revised self-induced jet impingement device is introduced in pool boiling using R1336mzz(Z). • Liquid-vapor separation promoted by the revised device is confirmed from the visualization results. • The revised device does nearly no effort on the nucleate boiling heat transfer coefficient until a relatively high heat flux. • Parametric investigations on the characteristics of the revised device are conducted. • The revised device gains up to 69.5 % and 36.7 % in the critical heat flux and the maximum nucleate boiling heat transfer coefficient, respectively. Pool boiling performance enhancement has attracted considerable interest on high power electronic cooling. In this paper, we introduce a self-induced jet impingement device for practical boiling enhancement, achieved by integrating the guidance tube with an orifice plate. With R1336mzz(Z) as the working fluid, we conduct visualization and parametric investigations on the pool boiling performance, considering the varying characteristics of this device. Visualization snapshots confirm the liquid-vapor separation and indicate that the two-phase flow pattern in the guidance tube eventually stabilizes as a churn-annular flow. Our findings suggest that self-induced liquid jet impingement has a minimal effect on the nucleate boiling heat transfer coefficient (h NB) under a certain heat flux, around 75 % CHF of the standard pool boiling, as the single-phase heat transfer is weakened due to the low thermal conductivity of R1336mzz(Z). As the heat flux intensifies, we observe substantial enhancements in both the Critical Heat Flux (CHF) and the Maximum Nucleate Boiling Heat transfer coefficient (h MNB) resulted from the delayed onset of boiling crisis, owing to the additional liquid supply and the promotion on vapor exhausting. The parametric studies reveal that the flow rate of the liquid jet, amplified by either extending the length or the inner diameter of the guidance tube, or by increasing the number of jet holes, positively impacts the boiling performance. However, these improvements show diminishing returns. Our study shows enhancements in CHF and h MNB of up to 69.5 % and 36.7 %, respectively, compared to the standard pool boiling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Different strategies are analyzed to enhanced microchannels based heat sinks. • Nanofluids to enhance heat performance of microchannel based heat sinks is analyzed. • Experiments are performed for Al 2 O 3 , Au and Ag nanoparticles at various concentrations. • The flow-boiling regimes are identified and discussed for the working conditions considered. • Two-phase flow conditions may not always be beneficial, low concentrations of nanoparticles (ϕ ≪ 1%) can have a notable impact on heat transfer mechanisms. This paper investigates the advantages and challenges associated with two-phase flows, specifically flow boiling of pure liquids and nanofluids, for cooling applications in microchannel heat sinks. The study explores various two-phase flow patterns, their related issues, and examines the potential of nanoparticles to enhance heat transfer. Alumina (Al 2 O 3), gold (Au), and silver (Ag) nanoparticles at different concentrations were tested. Experimental tests were conducted under different working conditions using various working fluids, including water, Al 2 O 3 1 wt%, Ag 1 wt%, Au 1 wt%, Au 0.75 wt%, Au 0.5 wt%. The heat fluxes used were 1.026 kW/m2, 1.696 W/m2 and 2.403 kW/m2, while the volumetric flows ranged between 0.5 mL/min and 1.5 mL/min. The observed results indicate that even for the lowest particle concentration tested, the water-Au nanofluid exhibits superior cooling performance compared to the other examined fluids. The findings suggest that although two-phase flow conditions may not yield significant benefits, even small concentrations of nanoparticles (ϕ ≪ 1%) can significantly impact heat transfer mechanisms. This approach provides a cost-effective and efficient alternative for cooling microchannel heat sinks without necessitating the use of two-phase flow conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]