Search

Copyright of Virtual Archaeology Review is the property of Virtual Archaeology Review and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Simple Summary: The Assyrian Trade Colonies Age, from the EBA to MBA, marked a shift in the trading system between Anatolia and Mesopotamia due to increased mineral trade. Assyrian traders transported tin, textiles, and valuable stones and metals, paying taxes to local rulers. They established settlements and established Karum colonies in major cities and Wabartum stations in smaller ones. It is known that donkeys and mules were used as caravan animals towards the end of the Early Bronze Age in Central Anatolia. However, we have not identified enough archaeological material to prove the existence of mules in particular. Animal bone remains recovered from the Derekutuğun mining settlement were examined, and especially the teeth of equids were further examined by the researcher. This study mentions the existence of the oldest known possible mules, especially based on the dental remains of equids found in Derekutuğun. This paper discusses the discoveries of early donkey and the earliest mule remains in Central Anatolia from the site Derekutuğun. This site represents the remains of a village dating back to the Early Bronze Age and Assyrian Trade Colonies period, associated with mining. The archaeofaunal assemblage was studied by the author and his team using classical archaeozoological methods. The dental remains of the Equidae found at Derekutuğun have been re-examined and are described in this article. The dental evidence indicates that donkeys, and possibly the earliest mules ever found in Central Anatolia, were kept at this site. Although the paper is based on the archaeozoological remains, written sources from the period also support the faunal identification. Derekutuğun was a small settlement that specialized in processing copper ore, and which was an important hub for a trade network because of its extensive mining and extraction operations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crisis and collapse have long been prominent themes in Hittite studies (much more so than the related topics of resistance and resilience) and most of the extant body of scholarship on these themes have concentrated on the disintegration of the Hittite Empire around 1200 BCE. Though the events, conditions and processes that culminated in the disintegration of the Hittite Empire elude historical reconstruction, recent studies have unanimously rejected monocausal explanations of collapse in favor of the view that it was brought about by a combination of factors – internal, external, acute or chronic. In Hittite scholarship, the study of collapse and its aftermath have typically operated within a markedly state-centered and progressivist framework, focusing primarily on figuring out "what went wrong." Meanwhile, especially in text-based studies, the agency and resilience of local, small(er)-scale, peripheral, and non-state individuals and communities, as well as their role in the construction, maintenance, and collapse of the Hittite empire, remain largely overlooked. The aim of the present paper is to shift the focus and scale of analysis away from the state, and to draw out from the textual record, the long-term agency, resistance, and resilience of local, small-scale, and often non-state individuals, communities, or socio-political institutions, which have typically been left out of text-based modern narratives. This paper will reassess the prominent view of the Hittite king (and state) as the absolute political, military, judicial, and religious authority, and argue that certain local and non-state communities and socio-political institutions exercised diverse kinds of agency, were remarkably resilient in the long term, and survived the final collapse of the Hittite state. In order to situate the inquiry in its broader scholarly and intellectual context, it will begin with an overview of where things stand in the study of the Hittite collapse. The next step will be to identify individual or collective local actors in the textual record. It will lastly focus on the interactions of diverse local agents with the Hittite state. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the Bronze Age, the inhabitants of regions of Crete, mainland Greece, and Cyprus inscribed their languages using, among other scripts, a writing system called Linear A. These symbols, mainly characterized by combinations of lines, have, since their discovery, remained a mystery. Not only is the corpus very small, but it is challenging to link Minoan, the language behind Linear A, to any known language. Most decipherment attempts involve using the phonetic values of Linear B, a grammatological offspring of Linear A, to 'read' Linear A. However, this yields meaningless words. Recently, novel approaches to deciphering the script have emerged which involve a computational component. In this paper, two such approaches are combined to account for the biases involved in provisionally assigning Linear B phonetic values to Linear A and to shed more light on the possible connections of Linear A with other scripts and languages from the region. Additionally, the limitations inherent in such approaches are discussed. Firstly, a feature-based similarity measure is used to compare Linear A with the Carian Alphabet and the Cypriot Syllabary. A few Linear A symbols are matched with symbols from the Carian Alphabet and the Cypriot Syllabary. Finally, using the derived phonetic values, Linear A is compared with Ancient Egyptian, Luwian, Hittite, Proto-Celtic, and Uralic using a consonantal approach. Some possible word matches are identified from each language. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: In this paper, we present the zooarchaeological and taphonomic study of a new Bronze Age site in the inland of the Iberian Peninsula. This study represents a significant contribution within the studied area, as it analyses the Pista de Motos faunal collection, one of the few representative samples from this period. This paper significantly contributes to completing the scarce information available for the Bronze Archaeology in the Middle Tagus Valley, located inland of the Iberian Peninsula. The Bronze Age zooarchaeological research for the interior and other regions of the Iberian Peninsula is currently limited. Despite several sites with known zooarchaeological profiles from the period, the main issue is that most of these derive from fragmentary and unrepresentative faunal records or are biased profiles from old excavations. New work has yielded novel zooarchaeological results in recent years that could help fill the existing zooarchaeological information gap in the Iberian inland, particularly in the Middle Tagus Valley. However, these projects are in the initial research stages and have not published much of their results. This paper presents the zooarchaeological profile of the Pista de Motos Bronze Age site to help fill this information gap. It analyses the taxonomic representation, skeletal profiles, and human activity patterns associated with faunal use. These observations suggest that animal exploitation at the site followed two primary purposes. One was linked to economic activities, mainly to obtain meat, milk, wool, or animal labour. The other was probably associated with symbolic-ritual practices suggested by the complete animal burials in some excavated units. We contextualise these interpretations with evidence from other Bronze Age sites in the Middle Tagus Valley. Finally, the paper assesses to what extent Pista de Motos is a relevant site for the zooarchaeology of the Bronze Age in the Iberian inland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper compares various ‘earthen’ construction materials and building techniques from three Middle Bronze Age tell (multi-layered settlement) sites in Hungary: Százhalombatta-Földvár, Kakucs-Turján (Vatya material culture) and Borsodivánka-Marhajárás-Nagyhalom (Otomani-Füzesabony Cultural Circle (OFCC)). It employs microscopic analyses – archaeological soil micromorphology and phytolith analysis within thin sections – to examine floor, wall and fire installation materials at a high resolution. The term ‘earthen construction materials’ is used in archaeology extensively to refer to anything from soils to sediments that sometimes lack proper classification or terminology. Through a closer look at the types of materials used at the three analysed sites, we describe more clearly what comprises ‘earthen’ construction materials. Using this data, we then employ a chaîne opératoire approach to think through various stages in the sourcing and preparation of building materials. In analysing this, the paper makes visible the decisions by Bronze Age builders and discusses their possible reasons, which include environmental conditions and socially learned practices. Further, by comparing three contemporary sites within a micro-landscape, our analysis highlights that even small variations in the environment and therefore the available raw materials impact building materials and techniques, and that different groups of people can make different decisions even when facing similar environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a study of ceramics from Northwest China from the Neolithic and Bronze Age (c. 3300–600 BCE), providing insights into variations in human–ceramic interactions over time and space. Based on macroscopic and petrographic analysis of ceramics from 10 sites, this paper shows that there is much more complexity in ceramic technology than previously thought. It identifies a development from a bi‐modal distinction between painted fine ware and rusticated coarse wares shared among communities across Northwest China to strongly localised ceramic traditions with new fabrics, vessel shapes, and decorations, some of them potentially of outside origin, reflecting considerable societal change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Animal husbandry was of fundamental consequence in the planning and development of larger and more permanent communities. Pastoralism is often assumed to be highly mobile when considering social institutions and political formations, despite the diversity of husbandry practices that are either wholly, or largely, tethered to relatively sedentary social aggregations. Key tenets of more settled animal husbandry are intensive social relations between people, and between people, animals, and landscapes. This entails reciprocal, multispecies cooperative efforts to decide how to utilize pastoral resources, choose where to settle, and how to organize settlements with an eye for the animals. Yet, scholars have rarely considered how the logistics and social dynamics of pastoralism shaped the transition to sedentism and, particularly, the development of collective forms of governance in prehistory. In this paper, we re-center pastoralism in narratives of settling down, in order to recognize the critical ways that relations with animals shaped how humans learned to move and dwell in emergent grazing landscapes. We take an institutional approach to the concept of "the commons," demonstrating the dynamics through 19thcentury Irish rundale, then draw on case studies from Southern Scandinavia and the Carpathian Basin to consider the commons as a multispecies institution which resulted in variable sociopolitical formations of the European Bronze Age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper argues that the Nordic boatbuilding tradition and the use of sail in Scandinavia can be traced back to the Early Bronze Age when it developed in response to emerging chiefdoms and an associated need for long-distance trade in bronze metals. The southern Scandinavian boat imagery dated to the Bronze Age (BA) depicts different types of boats and means of propulsion, including large vessels and the use of sail. This paper focuses on crew-lines on such imagery as indicative of boat length in relation to both the 350 BC Hjortspring boat, a BA type boat and the width-to-length ratio of BA ship-settings. This comparison suggests the BA boat imagery and ship-settings depict the same type of plank-built vessels and that the BA ship-settings are likely to represent 'real' vessels. Centrally positioned post holes in four of these ship-settings are therefore likely to represent masts, providing a direct link with mast-like features also present in the rock art boat imagery. Available BA boatbuilding technologies, based on analysis of the Hjortspring boat, and other indirect evidence of BA boatbuilding technologies, suggests that large, sailed vessels most likely existed, propelled in combination with mainly paddling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the changes to art on artefacts attributed to females in the Late Nordic Bronze Age (ca. 1100–500 BC) from a gender critical, feminist perspective. Traditionally, Scandinavian research has focussed on the art of male artefacts, which is believed to represent a cosmological narrative, whilst female art has been considered devoid of cosmological motifs – concomitantly, it is often assumed that prominent social standing was reserved males. Through analytical discussion, the paper shows how the same motifs as are considered cosmological in male objects can be found on female objects, too, in compositions diverging from the male use, suggesting a gender differentiated use of art and association to cosmology. Through a gender theoretical lens, the paper explores what the social use of the art on these objects may suggest regarding identity and power relations in society, linking up with a reconfiguration of female identity at this time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the development of pottery technology in the Trieste Karst region (North-East Italy) from the Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age (EBA). It also seeks to identify cultural links with other areas by examining potentially imported vessels. Archaeometric analyses (X-ray diffraction and optical microscopy) reveal significant differences between Neolithic ceramics (Danilo–Vlaška Group) and the majority of Late Copper Age (LCA)/Early Bronze Age (EBA) pottery (primarily associated with the Ljubljana Culture and a few with the Cetina Culture). Neolithic pottery displays consistent characteristics across all vessel types, including coarse grain, prevalent sparry calcite temper, and the absence of grog. In contrast, most LCA and EBA vessels exhibit distinct features such as very fine-grained paste, no sparry calcite, notable use of grog temper, higher quartz, muscovite, and flint content. Notably, from a technological perspective, the analyzed Cetina vessels bear a strong resemblance to the majority of LCA ceramics. The differences between Neolithic and LCA/EBA vessels clearly suggest the use of new raw materials, recipes, and techniques, likely reflecting changes in cultural and social contexts and potential connections with the core area of the Ljubljana Culture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides a new perspective on the long-debated issue of "collapse" at the end of the urban Early Bronze Age III (EB III, traditionally ca. 2300 BCE) in the southern Levant. In the past, the facts on the ground – manifesting the classic characteristics of a devastating collapse (destruction/abandonment) at the end of EB III – appeared to be followed by a rural "dark age" or "pastoral-nomadic" interlude in Early Bronze IV (EB IV), also known as the Intermediate Bronze Age (IBA). The "dark age" then ended upon the regeneration of urbanism after 2000 BCE in the Middle Bronze Age (MBA). This conceptualization of dramatic culture change in the Early Bronze Age has dominated the scholarly literature since the mid-20th century, bolstered by the widespread acceptance of evolutionary theories on the collapse of nations and civilizations. Current theoretical constructs on collapse look to the post-collapse period for insights on the process itself. A post-collapse urban-to-rural process, documented by nine continuous occupational phases at the EB III/IV transition, has recently come to light at Khirbat Iskandar, Jordan. This archaeological profile suggests strong local resilience in the aftermath of collapse, evident in the maintenance of traditions and social memory of settled life at the ancestral home. This adaptive cycle militates against traditional "collapse" modeling positing an apocalyptic break in Early Bronze Age civilization; instead, it resonates with resilience and resilience theory. Moreover, a plethora of new evidence has accumulated illuminating a type of "rural complexity" witnessed by a considerable database of EB IV permanent, multi-phased agricultural settlement sites belying the so-called pastoral-nomadic interlude rubric. Applying the construct of societal transformation, the hypothesis driving this research is that archaeological stratification at Khirbat Iskandar supports a process of recovery, resilience, and societal transformation, a reevaluation particularly apropos when contextualized in the new higher Early Bronze Age chronology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The spatial organization within ancient settlements offers valuable insights into the evolution of social complexity. This paper examines spatially and chronologically contextualized architectural structures and artifacts uncovered at the Late Bronze Age Shirenzigou site to explore the relationship between the use of space and underlying social dynamics in the Eastern Tianshan Mountains of Xinjiang (China). Central to our findings is a distinctive centripetal compound structure, consisting of a larger non-domestic building surrounded by smaller dwellings. This arrangement, along with the variety and distribution of the artifacts, reveals a complex interplay between private and communal spaces at the site, reflecting a growing complexity within the social fabric of the community. The formation of conglomerates of houses around a central communal structure which occurs across the Tianshan Mountains appears to be a strategic adaptation in response to environmental challenges and socio-political transformations across this region at the end of the second millennium BCE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Khirbat Iskandar is an Early Bronze Age (ca. 3800-1950 BCE) mound in the Madaba Governorate of Jordan. Until a decade ago, it was better known as a key site for the non-urban Early Bronze IV period (ca. 2500-1950 BCE), but is increasingly emerging as a signature site for the urban Early Bronze II-III period (ca. 3050-2500 BCE). The contour of the tall site is shaped by the presence of buried fortifications that were investigated in the north-western sector of the mound, where a long sequence of rebuilds was recognized, but were exposed to and impacted by modern construction activities along the southern and south-eastern areas prior to being recorded. There, due to erosion and weathering, the stone fortifications dating to the first half of the Early Bronze III (ca. 2850-2650 BCE) fell down. In this paper, we report on our strategies to assess threats, document damages, sustainably stabilize, and consolidate the collapsed ancient fortifications in the 2023 field season at Khirbat Iskandar. At the same time, we discuss the conceptual/methodological and practical challenges of identifying best practices in the conservation and preservation of antiquities that collapsed prior to being excavated. We conclude with some thoughts on how to build on these actions to efficiently present the archaeology and cultural heritage at protohistoric sites, like Khirbat Iskandar, and to make it accessible for the local and the international communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Zephyrus is the property of Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Zephyrus is the property of Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Complutum is the property of Universidad Complutense de Madrid and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Spal: Revista de Prehistoria y Arqueologia de la Universidad de Sevilla is the property of Spal. Revista de Prehistoria y Arqueologia de la Universidad de Sevilla and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Summary: Despite the regular appearance of peak sanctuaries, for over a century, in discussions on the organization of Cretan Bronze Age society, uncertainty still looms over the precise position these places of congregation held in the island's complex network of sites. One of the causes behind this academic situation is their methodological treatment. Particularly problematic is the customary scholarly practice of defining the sites' political affiliation, and their visitors' economic status, according to dichotomizing and somewhat reductive criteria such as 'palatial'/'non‐palatial' or 'elite'/'non‐elite'. Seeking to incorporate more nuance into the investigatory trajectory, this paper therefore encourages the implementation of more localized and materially‐founded analyses on the structure of the ritual activities held at these mysterious mountain‐tops. The efficiency of the proposed approach is demonstrated through a re‐examination of the ceramic figurines from Petsophas and the subsequent articulation of the existence of a communal dimension to their use and function. The study concludes that closer consideration of the simultaneously personal and collective significance of peak sanctuary ritual can yield further clues on their socio‐political role. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: The traces of marks left by human bodies on surviving archaeological artefacts can be a rich and informative source for understanding everyday individuals and their practices in the past. Nevertheless, such traces have tended to be neglected or generalized in archaeology, in favour of elite artefacts and manufacturing statistics – or in pursuit of 'clean', forensically amenable evidence, e.g. dry fingerprints. Using two case studies from Bronze Age Crete, this paper calls for an attitudinal, as much as a methodological, shift in how we exploit the remnants of gestural preferences, limitations and mistakes which we have hitherto chosen to dismiss. I argue that, if we want to understand nameless individuals of past societies, we need to overcome our implicit aversion to the mundane and everyday and to find new ways of exploring the 'messy', inconvenient, but also abundant fleeting moments of bodies no longer extant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Diagnosing the mobility of individuals involved in metal production helps to understand practices of metallurgy and related social processes in the southern Trans-Urals during the Late Bronze Age. In this paper, we present a comprehensive analysis of a unique Sintashta culture grave of an elderly male individual, dated to the early 2nd millennium BCE. The grave is notable for evidence of craft specialization in metal production, as indicated by a specific set of artifacts, while the deceased individual possessed unusual physical appearance, which apparently did not cause his social marginalization. The individual's lifetime mobility is suggested by 87Sr/86Sr values in his tissues that differ from those typical for the cemetery locus and the presence of non-local copper ore indicates long-distance exchange or import. We assume that craft specialization in metal production could be a factor in individual mobility related to the ore procurement and metal exchange. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alternating laminae of charred ash and packed earth uncovered in Field VI of Tel Gezer, Israel, have been interpreted as the remains of Iron Age threshing floors. Recent geoarchaeological research has, however, led to the reinterpretation of similar deposits elsewhere as the remains of a trash heap. This paper presents the results of analysis and dating of charred plant remains that were recovered from the laminated deposit of Gezer Field VI and reassesses their implications for the origins of the strata. A broad spectrum of potentially cultivated crops and arable weeds are identified, matching contemporary archaeobotanical assemblages elsewhere in the region. The archaeobotanical remains are found to be inconsistent with the residues expected to derive from a threshing floor. Rather, they appear to derive from a range of depositional pathways. This is consistent with a context into which numerous sources of plant remains were deposited, such as a midden. Evidence for the potential use of this space as a multi-purpose activity area will be a focus of future research. The dating of the archaeobotanical remains also aligns with a recently developed radiocarbon-based chronology to suggest that the laminated deposit is dated several centuries earlier than previously thought. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the third millennium cal BC, the Indus communities exploited great quantities of chert from the Rohri Hills mines in Upper Sindh for making different types of artifacts. This paper discusses the way chert was transported to the Indus Civilization centers and the problems related to the type, quantity, and quality of raw material and artifacts that were transported, including when, why, and where. This paper raises the question of land and water transport. Both these methods were probably used according to the landscape location of the Indus sites. Another problem concerns the landscape characteristics of the Indus Valley during the Bronze Age before the climate changes that took place around the end of the third millennium cal BC and the disappearance of the Hakra River, which was an important watercourse during the Indus phase. What do we know of the way the Indus communities exploited, transported, and circulated knappable chert? Why have the Indus settlements excavated around the Rohri Hills, the largest chert mines of the Indian Subcontinent, yielded little evidence of chert artifacts and nodules? What do we know of this important problem, which is strictly related to the everyday life of the Indus communities and their economy? Why this problem has been systematically neglected by most archaeologists despite its importance?

Sicilian protohistory was characterized by a progressive flow of indigenous populations towards the hills of the western Sicilian hinterland. Especially during the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age, the island's hinterland was marked by isolated settlements due to Siculi, Ausoni, Morgeti, and Elimi invasions and Phoenician and Greek colonization. In this scenario, Mokarta is an example of territorial autonomy and ethnic isolation (Sicanian) within an area of Elimi colonization. Its demise in the 11th century B.C.E, presumably at the hands of the Elimi, was rapid and violent as the settlement was suddenly abandoned following its destruction by fire. Symbolic of this event is an individual found at the entrance of a burned and collapsed hut who appears to have died from a cranial injury. This paper focuses on the osteological analysis of this skeleton, highlighting the perimortem injury, related to his death, and places the results within a forensic archeological context. The morphological pattern of the lesion is the result of a high‐energy impact by a circular blunt object. The fracture, involving both the meningeal vessels and the brain, could have led to a fatal neurological trauma. The analysis of the cranial fracture and an anatomical evaluation of the affected area led us to conclude that the perimortem injury, inflicted on the right parietal, probably was the cause of death. The case proposed highlights how an integrated approach based on bioarcheology and forensic anthropology helps in interpreting an archeological scenario and formulating hypotheses about the circumstances of an individual's death. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: This study deals with the results of the 2023 fieldwork at the extramural cemetery of the Late Bronze Age harbour city of Hala Sultan Tekke. One of the three excavated tombs in 2023 was the undisturbed Chamber Tomb XX, which is dated around 1300 BC. It contained a riveted bronze mirror, a rare type in Cyprus at that time, which is part of a mortuary context of four individuals out of a total of 17 individuals and 264 complete objects, many of them imported from a vast area, which includes the Mycenaean, Minoan, Egyptian and Levantine cultures. The current paper presents this mirror and associated contexts. As regards the provenance of the mirror, the Aegean is suggested as the area of manufacture, and more precisely Crete, suggesting potential evidence of direct contact between individuals from Crete and Hala Sultan Tekke. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: This paper starts from the unusual observation of the overrepresentation of females among adults in the cemetery of Bronze Age Shahr‐i Sokhta (Seistan, Iran) and explores the post marital residence pattern. By integrating taphonomical (skeletal preservation), anthropological (sex ratio [SR], sexual dimorphism, stress indicators, age at death), archeological (long distance trade indicators, habitation floor area, social role of women), and ancient DNA (heterozygosity levels in X chromosomes) data we test the hypothesis of post marital matrilocality in the site. Methods: We computed the SR (pelvis‐based sex determination) in a random unpublished adult sample from the cemetery of Shahr‐i Sokhta and in two samples previously published by other authors. We used comparative data on SR from: a large Supra Regional multi‐chronological sample of sites, n = 47, with 8808 adult sexed individuals, from Southern Europe, Egypt, Middle East, Southern Russia; a Regional Bronze Age sample of sites (n = 10) from Bactria Margiana and Indus Valley with 1324 adult sexed individuals. We estimated the heterozygosity levels in X chromosomes compared with the rest of the autosomes on the assumption that in a matrilocal society females should show lower variability than men. Results: Adult SR in a sample (n = 549) from Shahr‐i Sokhta is 70.5, the overrepresentation of females is shared with Regional Bronze Age sites from Bactria Margiana (SR = 72.09) and Indus Valley (SR = 67.54). On the contrary, in a larger Supra Regional multi‐chronological sample of sites, mean SR ranges between 112.7 (Bronze Age) and 163.1 (Middle Ages). Taphonomical and anthropological indicators do not explain the overrepresentation of female skeletons. Archeological indicators suggest a high social status of women and that the society was devoted to long range trade activities. heterozygosity levels in X chromosomes are in agreement with a matrilocal society. Conclusions: Indicators suggest that Bronze Age Shahr‐ì Sokhta was a matrilocal society and that long distance trade was an important economic factor producing an overrepresentation of adult female skeletons in the cemetery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A distinct feature on many Middle Bronze Age scarabs from the southern Levant is the presence of chromatic marks on the backs of these objects, often described as longitudinal lines. Previous explanations have fallen into one of three proposals: Either they are the product of production-related techniques related to firing and glazing, intentionally applied marks, or the byproduct of use-wear related or depositional practices. To date, no critical investigation of these enigmatic marks has been published and thus no consensus reached. However, through new high-resolution photography of the stamp seals from the sites of Lachish and Megiddo in the southern Levant, a systematic analysis was recently permitted. This paper presents the results from a study on these enigmatic marks and a discussion on what the new photography reveals about previous interpretations and possible new directions for the study of this corpus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper charcoals from the Syrian sites Tell Mozan and Tell Jerablus are investigated to understand the impact of 4th to 2nd millennium BC settlement on the vegetation. Charcoals from these sites have been identified and oak fragments have been measured for their maximal diameter and annual ring widths. Our results show that while oak had reached its maximal expansion in the Mid-Holocene, and vegetation in the Euphrates Valley was lusher than today, strong anthropogenic impact on the vegetation was occurring, probably already prior to the Late Chalcolithic period. Due to potentially enormous herds of sheep and goat, and possibly large-scale agriculture with perhaps some understory cropping, oak was growing very slowly, to the degree that it must often have had a shrub-like appearance. People did not apply systematic oak woodland management practices, such as coppicing or pollarding. They used dung as an additional fuel, probably to cover for shortages in wood resources. The land appears to have been used both intensively and extensively to a degree that was not sustainable in the long term. This, combined with aridity impact on the oak, probably led to a decrease in oak proportion at Mozan in the Middle Bronze Age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the implementation of herding in the Neolithic period, specialized areas for livestock activities have emerged in the Western Mediterranean region, such as some caves and shelters, which were systematically used for the stabling of herds. By definition, this type of sites has a great potential for the study of the beginning of livestock practices and offer high-resolution information on the exploitation and management of herds. Different disciplines analyze these activities through the analysis of faunal, archaeobotanical or sedimentological remains from these sites. In this paper, we offer a state of the art on the contribution to the study of early husbandry practices of zooarchaeological studies of faunal assemblages from sheepfold caves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The subsistence strategies of early farming communities have been highlighted since the beginning of the Neolithic, thanks to numerous studies on lipid residues from ceramic vessels conducted in various parts of continental Europe. However, after the Early Neolithic, evidence of subsistence strategies along the northern Atlantic coast are still lacking, especially for island contexts. This paper presents the results of lipid residue analysis of 129 potsherds from Beg ar Loued (Molène, France), an island site dating primarily to the Early Bronze Age (c. 2700-2600 to 1800 BCE). Aiming to understand the use of vessels, vessel treatment and culinary practices on the settlement, analyses of visible charred residues, sherds and ceramic surfaces/coating layers were carried out using chromatographic (n = 174) and isotopic techniques (n = 24) after lipid extraction by solvent (n = 174) or acid methanolysis (n = 31). The results demonstrate the extensive use of terrestrial products (ruminant carcass and dairy) in pottery, including occasional plant products (with possible mixtures of different waxes), while the detection of aquatic products is limited. Thus, combined with evidence from faunal remains at the site, the results indicate that terrestrial resources like ruminant meat and dairy products were preferentially processed in vessels, and aquatic products mostly without the use of ceramics. These findings demonstrate the significance of lipid residue analysis for studying the role of pottery in food production and consumption at sites along the Atlantic coast. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Cuadernos de Prehistoria y Arqueologia is the property of Cuadernos de Prehistoria y Arqueologia and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Indus Valley Civilization flourished in India and Pakistan owing to its technological advancements dating back to the 3rd millennium BC. The present paper aims to trace the emergence of pyrotechnology through documenting the industrial settlements that have been excavated in recent years, as well as locating the potential trading network for the craft items being produced at these small settlements on the outskirts of major Harappan cities such as Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and others. The paper focuses on the excavated Harappan sites with special reference to the site of Binjor - 4MSR in India's Ghaggar riverbed region. The reconstruction of kilns and furnaces based on the excavated remains was considered through the experimental study, such as wheel motion and the quantification of fuel consumption in the production of pottery, including terracotta figurines, bead and metal objects. During the research, the author has documented more than 50 furnaces, attempting to find parallels between Harappan heat treatment and modern potters and smiths located on ancient mounds. The ethnographic similarities between Harappans and the contemporary villagers who continue to inhabit the archaeological mound have been emphasised. The research also examines whether the technology utilised by the Harappans has changed or not, ranging from pottery manufacture to metal smelting, and what can be deduced from these experimental approaches to comprehend the technological prowess of their artisans.

Three decades of interdisciplinary research within the Sagalassos Archaeological Research Project has provided extensive archaeological, environmental and geoarchaeological datasets. This paper seeks to bring together these datasets to explore diachronic socio-ecological dynamics within the Sagalassos Study Area, SW Türkiye. For this, we will use the Adaptive Cycles and Resilience Theory framework to explore socio-cultural development during changing climatic and environmental conditions. The paper aims to serve as an in-depth case study of these frameworks, integrating archaeological and environmental data, which – despite the increasing popularity of resilience theory – remains underdeveloped within the field of archaeology, especially within Mediterranean and Anatolian archaeology. We will explore the utility of the adaptive cycle framework for reconstructing diachronic human-environment interactions through changing settlement patterns documented during surveys conducted by the Sagalassos Project. Critical phases within the settlement record can be identified during the last 8000 years including apparent periods of ‘rupture’ during the Middle Chalcolithic, Middle-Late Bronze Age, Hellenistic and Middle-Byzantine periods; representing times of serious upheaval in ‘normal’ cultural traditions and lifeways. The adaptive cycle framework will help distinguish between the effects of environmental changes and social dynamics, as well as their potential interrelations in causing long-term social transformation in the Sagalassos Study Area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Bronze Age zooarchaeological research for the interior and other regions of the Iberian Peninsula is currently limited. Despite several sites with known zooarchaeological profiles from the period, the main issue is that most of these derive from fragmentary and unrepresentative faunal records or are biased profiles from old excavations. New work has yielded novel zooarchaeological results in recent years that could help fill the existing zooarchaeological information gap in the Iberian inland, particularly in the Middle Tagus Valley. However, these projects are in the initial research stages and have not published much of their results. This paper presents the zooarchaeological profile of the Pista de Motos Bronze Age site to help fill this information gap. It analyses the taxonomic representation, skeletal profiles, and human activity patterns associated with faunal use. These observations suggest that animal exploitation at the site followed two primary purposes. One was linked to economic activities, mainly to obtain meat, milk, wool, or animal labour. The other was probably associated with symbolic-ritual practices suggested by the complete animal burials in some excavated units. We contextualise these interpretations with evidence from other Bronze Age sites in the Middle Tagus Valley. Finally, the paper assesses to what extent Pista de Motos is a relevant site for the zooarchaeology of the Bronze Age in the Iberian inland.

This study recreates aspects of the life and death of a young adult male who died during the siege of Roca Vecchia, a Bronze Age fortified coastal site in Italy. The partially charred and unburied individual, Roca US813A, was found among the debris in the southern room of the main gate to the city. This paper highlights information that can be retrieved from a single partially preserved skeleton. Detailed bioarchaeological, forensic, and taphonomic analysis, and thorough examination of archaeological and contextual data permit an osteobiography of this individual to be developed, which we situate in the overall picture of Middle Bronze Age regional events and exchanges between Italy and the Aegean world. This individual represents a unique example of information derived from bones from an archaeological context. After suffering fatal blows to the body, the individual was accidently exposed to heat. This allowed us to analyze wounds that had undergone thermal alteration. Since the combustion of the body was only partial and the same bone retains both highly burned and unburned parts, we were able to document the variations induced by heat at a macroscopic and microscopic level. To investigate the circumstances of his death, we focus on macroscopic and microscopic details of taphonomy and trauma using micro-CT, forensic, and multi-isotopic analysis. This may be the first secure evidence of a Middle Bronze Age (MBA) war casualty in Italy. In addition to detailed information about their manner of death, we discuss implications for the peopling of the site, tactics in Bronze Age warfare, and the nature of relations between Roca and the Aegean region. • Roca Vecchia; Middle Bronze Age; Warfare; Perimortem Traumas; Burned bones; Indigenous-Aegean relations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By combining a multidisciplinary approach and an intensive program of scientific techniques, this paper provides a comprehensive overview of salt production at the Villafáfila lagoons (Zamora, Spain) in prehistoric times. During the Late Chalcolithic and the Early/Middle Bronze Age salt was obtained by boiling brine from salt lagoons. In many parts of western and central Europe at the time the standard procedure for forcing evaporation usually involved the use of crudely fired clay vessels (briquetage) to concentrate brine, and then to mould salt. We suggest that the methods during the final stages of the process differed at Villafáfila, having found evidence of basketry and textiles, which may have been used in the step of crystallization/transport of salt in cake, instead of the small ceramic salt moulds which would be expected in such sites. The role of salt within the socioeconomic setting of the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE in Central Iberia is also assessed. It is argued that the production and distribution of salt contributed significantly to the political economy, as elites controlled this activity, supporting the idea that salt was a prestige good that contributed to the accumulation of wealth. There is also evidence of ritual practices in the salt-processing areas, as human burials and animal sacrifices have been documented in the excavated sites. • Archaeological evidence shows the production of salt at the Villafáfila lagoons by the late 3rd millennium BCE, during the Beaker period. • Brackish water was boiled in large ceramic vessels supported by clay or stone pedestals. • Techniques evolved during the Early Bronze Age, when pedestals were replaced by clay-walled kilns. • Absence of genuine briquetage, and of small ceramic pots used as salt moulds. • Possible use of baskets and textiles sacks as moulds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction. This paper presents results of an anthropological and paleopathological studies of newly excavated materials from the Karanayevsky cemetery located in the Southwestern Bashkortostan and attributed to Srubnaya culture. The goal of this study was to introduce new data from kurgan 2, as well as to compare this sample with the samples from other Karanayevsky kurgans, and with synchronous population characteristics of the region. Discussion involves skeletal material from 12 individual burials (nine children and three adults). Methods. Sex, age and the state of preservation/completeness of the remains were assessed. We performed a morphometric study, an analysis of dental morphology, description of pathologies and individual characteristics, taking into consideration the recommendations in the specific literature. The Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient was used to test for the relationship between skeletal preservation, sex, age, and grave construction. A single cranium from the kurgan was compared with the pooled samples from the region using Heincke’s method. The Fisher’s exact test was used to assess the possible statistical differences in frequencies of dental non-metric traits between the Karanayevsky kurgan 2 sample and the pooled Srubnaya samples of the Pre-Urals. Analysis. The skeleton preservation appears to be related to the age of the buried, but to a greater extent varies depending on the depth of the grave. The female skull from kurgan 2 shows characteristics of European ancestry and has mesomorphic morphology with a medium or slightly weakened horizontal and vertical profiling. It shows similarity to the pooled Srubnaya craniological series from the forest-steppe subareas. The dental morphology observed in the sample corresponds to the archaic gracile variant of European ancestry. Osteometric data characterize adult individuals as representatives of the mesomorphic, moderately massive group with reduced or medium limb length. Like in other groups of the region, the sample is defined by the predominance of dental calculus and dental chips, some markers of physiological and mechanical stress and the absence of indicators of specific infections. Results. In general, the Karanayevsky kurgan 2 skeletal sample corresponds to the characteristics of other Karanaevsky cemetery samples, and is consistent with the results on the synchronous sites of the Pre-Urals and Trans-Urals.

Archaeological excavations in urban and rural contexts often uncover dark homogeneous anthropogenic deposits, soils and soil horizons, known as Dark Earths, Cultural Layers and Anthrosols. Major scientific questions arise about the processes that lead to the formation of these soils and deposits, as they are often related to a complex combination of environmental, climatic, and anthropogenic factors. Many studies focused on the morphological and physical-chemical investigation of the archaeological remains found as well as the inorganic constituent of the soil. The organic fraction has been only roughly investigated and studies carried out on a molecular level are very limited. However, a more refined investigation of the chemical constituents of these soils can potentially reveal pivotal insights on the archaeological context such as past domestic habits and/or urban organization. It has been demonstrated that, among organic matter constituents, fecal steroids are promising biomarkers to track fecal input in many environmental matrixes such as water, soils, and sediments. In this paper we determine the fecal sterols and stanols content in dark homogeneous anthropogenic deposits and soils found in seven archaeological sites in Italy (from Verona, Como, Florence, Mel and Conegliano) dated from the Late Bronze Age and the Medieval Period, aiming to assess the major contribution of the fecal input using diagnostic fecal indexes obtained from specific fecal sterol proportions. To this purpose, a baseline was established by identifying the fecal fingerprint of domestic herbivores (caprids, ovines, equines and bovines) and omnivores (pigs). Based on their fecal fingerprint, we classified the deposits of seven studied sites into four distinct categories: i) the medieval sites of Verona, presented a strong mixed fecal input from both herbivores and humans; ii) the medieval sites of Como and Florence which showed a similar pattern, with a predominance of human fecal input over livestock; iii) the late medieval soils of Mel and the late bronze age Cultural Layers of Castellar di Leppia (Verona) which exhibited a generally scarce fecal contamination while iv) the final bronze age site of Conegliano (Treviso), a strong fecal contamination from herbivores was detected. These results thus demonstrate that for the Medieval Dark Earth the socio-cultural processes leading to the formation of the Dark Earth differ in terms of sewage and waste management and/or in animal husbandry practices. • The molecular fecal fingerprint of domestic animals was established. • Seven archaeological sites in north-central Italy were analyzed for fecal input. • The diverse fecal contamination patterns reveal past habits of sewage and water management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Eurasian Bronze Age (BA) has been described as a period of substantial human migrations, the emergence of pastoralism, horse domestication, and development of metallurgy. This study focuses on two north Eurasian sites sharing Siberian genetic ancestry. One of the sites, Rostovka, is associated with the Seima-Turbino (ST) phenomenon (~2200-1900 BCE) that is characterized by elaborate metallurgical objects found throughout Northern Eurasia. The genetic profiles of Rostovka individuals vary widely along the forest-tundra Siberian genetic cline represented by many modern Uralic-speaking populations, and the genetic heterogeneity observed is consistent with the current understanding of the ST being a transcultural phenomenon. Individuals from the second site, Bolshoy Oleni Ostrov in Kola, in comparison form a tighter cluster on the Siberian ancestry cline. We further explore this Siberian ancestry profile and assess the role of the ST phenomenon and other contemporaneous BA cultures in the spread of Uralic languages and Siberian ancestry. This study highlights Bronze Age northern Eurasia as a region of interaction between various groups sharing a Siberian ancestry component and the spread of languages and cultures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Excavations in the Eastern Suburb of Bronze Age Aegina Kolonna revealed the destruction deposit of two sequenced Early Mycenaean buildings (phase Late Helladic IIA; 16th century BC). The older building is interpreted as a widely undisturbed production site of purple-dye based on indicative finds such as ceramic sherds containing analyzable quantities of pigment, high amounts of mollusk shells, and a few functional facilities. Chemical analysis by HPLC and malacological determination revealed that the banded dye-murex (Hexaplex trunculus) was used almost exclusively. The presence of crushing tools and a waste disposal pit provide insight into the technical process of dye production. Additionally, skeletal remains of heavily burnt infantile and juvenile piglets, kids, or lambs were found in the purple workshop area. The evidence may be better explained by ritual activities aimed at promoting the highly meaningful event of purple production, rather than by normal food consumption practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the largest isotopic datasets of the ancient Eastern Mediterranean region is evaluated, based on plants (n = 410), animals (n = 210) and humans (n = 16) from Tell Tweini (Syria). Diachronic analysis of plant and faunal specimens from four main periods of occupation: Early Bronze Age (2600–2000 BC), Middle Bronze Age (2000–1600 BC), Late Bronze Age (1600–1200 BC) and Iron Age (1200–333 BC) were investigated. Mean Δ13C results from seven plant species reveal emmer and free threshing wheat, olives, bitter vetch, rye grass and barley were adequately or well-watered during all periods of occupation. The grape Δ13C results suggest excellent growing conditions and particular care for its cultivation. The δ15N results indicate that especially the emmer and free threshing wheats received some manure inputs throughout the occupation sequence, while these were likely further increased during the Iron Age, encompassing also the olive groves and grape vineyards. Generally, domestic animals (cattle, sheep, goats) had C3 terrestrial diets and were kept together in similar environments. However, some animals consumed significant amounts of marine or C4 plants, possibly from disturbed habitats due to land use pressure or salt tolerant grasses and shrubs from wetland environments, which were recorded in the direct vicinity of the site. Middle Bronze Age humans consumed a C3 terrestrial diet with no measurable input from C4, freshwater or marine protein sources. Interestingly, the human diet was relatively low in animal protein and appears comparable to what is considered today a typical Mediterranean diet consisting of bread (wheat/barley), olives, grapes, pulses, dairy products and small amounts of meat. The combined isotopic analysis of plants, animals and humans from Tell Tweini represents unbroken links in the food chain which create unparalleled opportunities to enhance our current understanding of environmental conditions, climate change and lifeways in past populations from the Eastern Mediterranean. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article provides a detailed insight into computational approaches for deciphering Bronze Age Aegean and Cypriot scripts, namely, the Archanes script and the Archanes formula, Phaistos Disk, Cretan hieroglyphic (including the Malia Altar Stone and Arkalochori Axe), Linear A, Linear B, Cypro-Minoan, and Cypriot scripts. The unique contributions of this article are threefold: (1) a thorough review of major Bronze Age Aegean and Cypriot scripts and inscriptions, digital data and corpora associated with them, existing computational decipherment methods developed in order to decipher them, and possible links to other scripts and languages; (2) the definition of 15 major challenges that can be encountered in computational decipherments of ancient scripts; and (3) an outline of a computational model that could possibly be used to simulate traditional decipherment processes of ancient scripts based on palaeography and epigraphy. In the context of this article the term decipherment denotes the process of discovery of the language and/or the set of symbols behind an unknown script, and the meaning behind it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]