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This study examines the relationships between CO2 emissions, gross domestic product (GDP), financial development, energy export, sustainable power, unsustainable power depletion, and commercial growth in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) from 1990 to 2022 by using the auto-regressive distributed lag (ARDL) approach and the vector error correction model (VECM) approach. In the first step, we have used tests such as the augmented Dickey–Fuller (ADF) test and the Dickey–Fuller generalized least squares (DF-GLS) to capture the order of integration of the variables, and the results show that all the variables are stationary in regard to the first difference. In the second step, we have applied the examination of bounds in order to validate the presence of long-term cointegration relationships between the variables. The results of the ARDL approach show that financial development, sustainable energy, and commercial openness have a negative impact on CO2 emissions. However, GDP, energy export, and unsustainable energy lead to an increase in environmental degradation. Finally, the Granger causality test shows mixed causality relationship among the variables. Accordingly, governments should encourage the development and use of sustainable energy alternatives, such as solar power, wind power, and hydroelectric power, through incentives and subsidies, in addition to conducting new research concerning the topic and starting new initiatives. Protecting and expanding green areas is crucial to mitigate CO2 emissions, and strategies for transitioning to cleaner energy alternatives should be developed. Additionally, facilitating the transfer of sustainable energy technologies and promoting collaboration in research and development can accelerate the adoption of clean energy solutions. These policy actions can contribute to reducing CO2 levels, as well as promoting sustainable energy practices in the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Globally, the integration of electric vehicles (EVs) in the transportation sector represents a significant step towards achieving environmental decarbonization. This shift also introduces a new demand for electric power within the utility grid network. This study focuses on the design and development of a grid-connected renewable energy system tailored to meet the EV load demands in Taif, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). The integration of renewable energy sources, specifically solar photovoltaic (SPV) and wind turbines (WT), is explored within the context of economic feasibility and system reliability. Key considerations include optimizing the system to efficiently handle the fluctuating demands of EV charging while minimizing reliance on conventional grid power. Economic analyses and reliability assessments are conducted to evaluate the feasibility and performance of the proposed renewable energy system. This article discusses the technical sizing of hybrid systems, energy reduction, and net present cost for the selected location. A rigorous sensitivity analysis is performed to determine the impact of major variables such as inflation rate, real discount rate, solar irradiation, and Lack of Power Supply Probability (LPSP) on system performance. The results demonstrate that the Pufferfish Optimization Algorithm (PFO) significantly outperforms other metaheuristic algorithms documented in the literature, as well as the HOMER software. The study found that the grid-connected renewable energy system is the best option for operating EV charging stations at the selected location. The findings underscore the potential for sustainable energy solutions in urban environments like Taif, highlighting the importance of integrating renewable energy technologies to meet growing energy demands with enhanced economic efficiency and system reliability. This initiative seeks to pave the way for a greener and more resilient energy infrastructure, aligning with global efforts towards sustainable development and clean transportation solutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saudi Arabia plans to shift a large portion of its domestic energy production away from fossil fuel towards solar energy by 2030. Yet, the solar energy pool is mainly targeting photovoltaic technology. This study analyzes the potential of cleaner energy production from solar energy using concentrated solar power technology. First, different locations for concentrated solar power technology deployment are assessed based on potential development opportunities, solar resources, and infrastructure. Second, the paper assesses the performance and financial feasibility of four concentrated solar power technologies using the capacity factor, levelized cost of energy, and energy yield. The analysis indicates that all the considered locations are suitable for concentrated solar power technologies with a preference for the NEOM city located in the northern region of Saudi Arabia. The simulation results revealed that solar tower technology produces the highest energy yield of 2738 kWh/kW. The levelized cost of energy for the four technologies varies between 14.54 and 22.67 ¢/kWh, with linear Fresnel demonstrating the lowest and parabolic trough exhibiting the highest levelized cost of energy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]