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Driven by the goals of carbon neutrality, electrochemical storage technologies play a vital role in supporting the integration of renewable energy and reducing dependency on fossil fuels. The Mn-based rechargeable battery (MnRB) is gaining significant attention in the battery industry due to its high voltage platform and high energy density, making it a potential alternative in the e-bike and energy storage system area. The safety performance of MnRB is crucial for its widespread application. However, there has been a scarcity of studies evaluating the safety of MnRB. In this study, the thermal safety behavior of a commercial Mn-based composite cathode battery from the perspectives of "heat generation-gas emission- explosion risks". Its safety performance was compared with that of existing batteries using Li(NixCoyMnz)O2 and LiFePO4(LFP) as cathode materials. The results indicate that MnRB exhibits a higher triggering temperature, 0.8% lower than Li(Ni0.5Co0.2Mn0.3)O2 (NCM523) and approximately 12.7% lower than LFP. MnRB's normalized gas emission during thermal runway (TR) is 1.3% lower than that of NCM523, with the primary gas components being CO, H2, and CO2. The lower explosion limit of MnRB is approximately 2.7% lower than NCM523 and 44.0% higher than LFP. MnRB exhibits intermediate thermal stability and combustion-explosion characteristics between NCM523 and LFP. This study provides valuable data on MnRB's TR behavior, offering a comprehensive assessment of MnRB's intrinsic safety performance through quantitative evaluation. The findings present clear directions for designing, optimizing, and implementing safety measures for MnRB against TR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Active thermal management strategies are critical for optimizing fuel cell performance by regulating stack temperature in response to output power variations. However, existing approaches often fail to adequately consider the impact of multi-source perturbations, such as gas supply perturbations or voltage distribution heterogeneity. To bridge this gap, we propose a nonlinear autoregressive exogenous network surrogate model to simulate fuel cell voltage distribution. This model is integrated into an advanced online thermal management control system. The proposed strategy employs an artificial bee colony optimization algorithm and a tube-based robust model predictive control strategy with relaxation factors. It enables real-time regulation of coolant outlet and inlet temperatures in response to variations in load current, reactant gas flow rate and pressure, and voltage distribution characteristics. Experimental results demonstrate that at a current density of 1.0 A/cm2, the strategy increased the average cell voltage by 6.1 mV, reduced the voltage extreme difference by 40.3%, and lowered the voltage standard deviation by 54.9%. The active thermal management strategy significantly enhances the performance of fuel cells under multi-source perturbations. [Display omitted] • Both thermal management system internal and external perturbations are considered. • Voltage with stack temperature and stack temperature difference is modeled. • A constraint relaxation tube-RMPC is designed for fuel cell steady-state processes. • A NARX neural network is constructed to predict fuel cell performance in real time. • The strategy improves both stack performance and voltage consistency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increase in battery storage capacity of electric vehicles has led to longer electric vehicle range testing duration at low temperatures. To shorten testing duration and lower costs, a rapid and accurate method for electric vehicle range testing at low temperature was developed. First, electric range testing on 15 vehicles were conducted at −7 ℃ according to consecutive cycle test method in GB/T 18386.1-2021, the test cycle is China light-duty vehicle test cycle. The results showed different discharge characteristics at −7 ℃ compared to at 23 ℃. Differences are summarized as: more cycles needed for achieving thermal equilibrium and battery pack heating in the last discharge stage. To address the former difference, by setting various representative cycle numbers and weighting coefficients, it determined a rapid cycle test method that includes a dynamic segment and a constant speed segment. To address the latter difference, it developed the abnormal energy correction method. Practical experiments have validated that the new method ensured a range test deviation within 3%. It effectively reduced the test duration by over 50%. In conclusion, the rapid cycle test provides an efficient and accurate method for electric vehicle range testing in low-temperature, significantly reducing test duration and suitable for all vehicles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phase Change Material-based Battery Thermal Management System (PCM-based BTMS) has become a current research hotspot due to its high efficiency, thermal stability, and compactness. Regrettably, most existing research on PCM-based BTMS neglects the existence of mechanical vibrations, despite the inevitable involvement of such vibrations in the operating conditions of BTMS in electric vehicles. Therefore, in this study, a PCM-based BTMS is applied to a 6-cell lithium-ion battery (LIB) module, and then numerical simulation is employed to comprehensively evaluate the BTMS's performance in the existence of mechanical vibration. The findings indicate that, under mechanical vibration condition, mechanical vibration's influence on the performance of the BTMS is negligible at lower discharge rates, but becomes significant when the discharge rate surpasses a certain threshold, particularly at extremely fast discharge level, resulting in a decrease of 2.28 K in the LIB module's maximum temperature and a more uniform temperature distribution upon completion of an 8 C discharge in contrast to its stationary equivalent. Furthermore, mechanical vibration only effectively enhances the BTMS's thermal absorption capability when the PCM thickness surpasses a certain value, and this vibration also improves the capability of the BTMS to achieve uniform temperature distribution in the LIB module, especially for larger PCM thicknesses. Lastly, the BTMS's performance is able to strengthened by raising vibrational amplitude, but the impact is negligible when the amplitude is equal to or greater than 50 mm, and the thermal absorption capability of the BTMS can be augmented by raising the vibrational frequency, but there exists an enhancement limit. This work promotes the use of PCM-based BTMS in real-world applications and contributes to the advancement of LIB towards higher discharge rates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AbstractThis study describes the application of cathode scrap obtained from spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in the adsorptive removal of aqueous MB dye molecules. The physicochemical properties of the cathode scrap are thoroughly examined. High-resolution microscopic images display aggregation of small-sized particles in cathode scrap. Thermogravimetric analysis confirms the presence of stable metallic compounds (89% by weight) in cathode scrap above 600 °C. Surface charge analysis proves that negative surface charge of cathode scrap increases with the rising pH of the solution. The high negative surface charge facilitates adsorption of positively charged MB molecules onto negatively charged cathode scrap. The maximum quantity of MB adsorbed, as determined by the Langmuir model, is 80.42 mg/g at pH 12. Further, the material may be regenerated efficiently post-adsorption study without requiring any expensive solvent. Reusability studies demonstrate that the material maintains its activity even after five test cycles. The slight reduction in activity observed after each cycle may be attributed to the loss of some active sites into the solution during repeated use. The data clearly confirm that cathode scrap has the potential to remove various pollutants from wastewater with proper optimization of the pretreatment conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An experimental investigation is conducted to identify the optimal blend of fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC), 3,3,3-trifluoropropylene carbonate (TFEC), and various fluorinated ethers, including 1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl-2,2,2-trifluoroethyl ether (HFE), 1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl-2,2,3,3-tetrafluoropropyl ether (TTE), and bis(2,2,2-trifluoroethyl) ether (BTE), to enhance the performances of lithium-ion cells at high voltage. The cell incorporating TTE exhibits a significantly superior capacity for retention after long-term cycling at 4.5 V, which might be attributed to the improved kinetics of lithium ions and the generation of a thin, reliable, and inorganic-rich electrode–electrolyte interface. This enhancement facilitates greater lithium ion mobility within the cell, while effectively suppressing active lithium loss and side reactions between the electrodes and electrolytes at elevated voltages. Furthermore, the cell with TTE demonstrates a superior rate capability and high-temperature performance. As a result of the inherent safety characteristics of these all-fluorinated electrolytes, cells using these formulations show excellent safety properties under typical abuse scenarios. Except at elevated temperatures, none of the cells undergo thermal runaway when subjected to mechanical or electrical abuse, and there are minimal differences in safety performance across the different formulations. Considering electrochemical performance, safety, and cost factors, it can be concluded that TTE might be more optimal to cooperate with FEC and TFEC for high-performance high-voltage cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores thermal management strategies for Battery Thermal Management Systems (BTMS) in electric vehicles, with a main emphasis on enhancing performance, ensuring dependability, and fostering sustainability. This book attempts to provide a full understanding of the intricate mechanisms involved in maintaining appropriate operating temperatures for battery packs by exploring various cooling solutions such as air cooling, liquid cooling, and Phase Change Materials (PCM). This study presents new findings on the combined use of various cooling methods, developments in Thermoelectric Coolers (TECs) to improve efficiency, and the crucial importance of safety standards in BTMS design. This work aims to advance innovative approaches that enhance battery performance and longevity, while also contributing to the development of more efficient and sustainable electric vehicle technology. It achieves this by addressing economic considerations and outlining future research directions. Moreover, the research emphasizes the importance of filling up the gaps in knowledge by incorporating state-of-the-art developments in BTMS. This underscores the necessity for ongoing innovation in order to address the changing requirements of electric car technology. This research adopts a comprehensive strategy by integrating several cooling strategies and emphasizing economic viability and environmental sustainability. This work aims to provide a valuable resource for researchers, engineers, and industry professionals who want to improve the efficiency, reliability, and longevity of BTMS in electric vehicles. It does this by explaining the complexities of thermal management in electric vehicles and suggesting strategies for improvement. • BTMS innovations enhance EV battery safety, efficiency, and operational lifespan. • Liquid cooling proves efficient in EVs, though complex and resource intensive. • PCM-based BTMS offers effective passive cooling with temperature control limitations. • Hybrid BTMS combining active/passive methods achieves superior performance. • AI integration in BTMS enables predictive control, optimizing thermal efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Photothermal therapy (PTT), as a non-invasive and selective treatment strategy, has garnered extensive research interest. Photothermal agents (PTAs) are critical components of PTT, whose light-absorbing and thermosensitive properties enable effective conversion of light energy into heat, creating localized high-temperature regions. However, PTAs often face challenges with degradation in vivo, and standalone PTT is insufficient for complete tumor cell ablation. In this study, we successfully developed a biodegradable nanoplatform for synergistic photothermal-photodynamic therapy. This platform is based on degradable antimonene nanosheets, further functionalized with a chitosan coating, and loaded with the photosensitizer Ce6. In vitro experiments demonstrated that this nanoplatform exhibits excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability. Upon laser excitation, the platform induces localized thermal effects for cell ablation and promotes reactive oxygen species generation, leading to superior anti-tumor efficacy compared to monotherapies. These findings suggest that this multifunctional nanoplatform can significantly enhance the therapeutic efficiency of synergistic phototherapy, presenting a promising candidate for cancer treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lithium-ion batteries have been increasingly demonstrated in reuse applications for environmental and economic reasons, and stationary energy storage systems (ESS) and mobile ESS are emerging as reuse applications for electric vehicle batteries. Most mobile ESS deployments are at large scales, necessitating experimental data on thermal runaway (TR) to ensure comprehensive safety. In this study, TR induction and suppression experiments were conducted using fully charged NCM-based batteries at the cell (750 Wh), module (7.5 kWh), and pack (74 kWh) levels. The stepwise TR experiments measured changes in temperature, voltage, heat release rate, volatile organic compound concentrations, and vent gas composition. The suppression experiments assessed the effective water injection rate, timing, and volume required to mitigate TR propagation. The results demonstrate that in the case of TR caused by thermal abuse, early detection of battery abnormalities is possible through monitoring pre-TR indicators, such as temperature and vent gas concentration. It was also confirmed that CO2 injections can effectively cool the battery without causing damage. Furthermore, it is proposed that rapid water injection, directly contacting the battery immediately after the onset of TR, can successfully prevent TR propagation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

PEMFCs' operation entails the presence of heterogeneities in the generation of current, heat and water along the active surface area. Indeed, PEMFCs are open systems, and as such, operating heterogeneities are inherent to their operation. A review of the literature reveals numerous attempts to achieve uniform current density distribution. These attempts are primarily focused on bipolar plate design and operating conditions, with the underlying assumption that uniform current density correlates with enhanced performance. Most studies focus on the influence of gas flow-field design and inlet hydrogen and air flow conditioning, and less attention has been paid to the coolant operating condition. However, uncontrolled temperature distribution over a large cell active surface area can lead to performance loss and localized degradations. On this latter point, we notice that studies to date have been confined to a narrow range of operating conditions. It appears that complementary durability studies are needed in order to obtain in-depth analyses of the coupled influence of temperature distribution and gas humidification in large PEMFCs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work, a hybrid battery thermal management system using active cooling and Phase Change Material (PCM) has been studied. The additional weight of PCM poses design challenges, and hence its optimization is required. In this regard, a PCM enclosure of a cylindrical structure with six cylindrical cells is considered in 6-row and 1-column arrangement in the present work. The thermal performance of the proposed system is numerically investigated with different thicknesses of PCM layers at constant heat generation and coolant (air) flow rates. It is found that the battery thermal management with only PCM shows unsatisfactory performance under extended severe operating conditions. However, the addition low-flow convectional cooling improved the performance and the system's reliability. It is found that for the proposed system, PCM thickness of 1 mm for the first battery cell and 2 mm for the subsequent battery cells help in better heat dissipation showing minimal thermal non–uniformity (1.1 °C) and reduced maximum temperature (39.6 °C) within the battery pack. Consequently, the optimized system shows 68.3% reduction in PCM mass as compared to the case of uniform thickness of the PCM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The commercialization of perovskite solar cells (PSCs), as an emerging industry, still faces competition from other renewable energy technologies in the market. It is essential to ensure that PSCs are durable and stable in high‐temperature environments in order to meet the varied market demands of hot regions or seasons. The influence of high temperatures on the PSCs is complex, encompassing factors such as lattice strain, crystal phase changes, the creation of defects, and ion movement. Furthermore, it intensifies lattice vibrations and phonon scattering, which in turn impacts the migration rate of charge carriers. This review focuses on the durability of organic–inorganic hybrid PSCs under high temperatures. It begins by analyzing the impact of external temperature variations on the internal energy dynamics of PSCs. Subsequently, it outlines the various mechanisms provided by different functional molecules, applied to interface stabilization, grain boundary passivation, crystal growth control, electrode protection, and the development of new hole transport layers, to enhance the thermal stability of PSCs. Additionally, machine learning (ML) is discussed for predicting crystal structure stability, PSCs operational stability, and material screening, with a focus on the potential of deep learning and explainable artifical intelligence (AI) techniques in the commercialization of PSCs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thermal management of lithium‐ion batteries has received a lot of interest in the automobile sector. In commercial electric motor vehicles, an efficient battery cooling arrangement, particularly active cooling approaches, has been chosen as an ideal option. When building battery cooling systems, the physical structure and arrangement of the battery pack (BP) are vital. The current study presents a revolutionary design of a BP that incorporates cylindrical cells in a square duct and an air‐cooling (AC) medium circulated in its surroundings with the help of variable vents for inlet and outlet. A forced‐AC system is used to test lithium‐ion battery cells grouped in a 5 × 5 configured battery module. To investigate the impact of heat generation on battery thermal performance, a complete thermal analysis was performed at different discharge rates of 0.5, 1, 2, 3, and 4 C. As compared with both inlet vents at an equidistance configuration with an inlet velocity of 12 m/s and a flow rate of 1.210(−2) kg/s, the results show that the proposed design minimizes heat accumulation by enhancing the heat transfer. As a result, the peak temperature and temperature disparity decreased by 6.76% and 85.32%, respectively. A flow‐dispersing disc of 30 mm in size enhances temperature uniformity in comparison to the other intake vent design, hence improving battery safety and longevity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The refrigerator works in an off-grid configuration, and its indirect emissions are null. • Laboratory tests showed complete autonomy for several set-point temperatures for 24 h. • Implementing phase change Materials, outdoor tests showed autonomy for more days. • The use of PCMs can significantly reduce battery size and weight, improving the system's compactness. • The system is particularly suitable for areas with electrification deficiencies. The availability of vaccines, medicines, and perishable goods in remote or off-grid areas remains a formidable challenge. Integrating solar photovoltaic (PV) systems with refrigeration technology has emerged as a promising solution to address this critical need. This paper presents an autonomous solar-powered refrigerator prototype for off-grid refrigeration in remote areas utilising renewable energy. The system comprises a 160 W photovoltaic module, a 12/24 V DC compressor refrigerator, a lead-acid battery, and a Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) controller. Its main feature is complete autonomy from the electricity grid, thanks to its standalone configuration. An experimental campaign evaluated the system's behaviour in the laboratory for 24 h at different set-point temperatures. A water-based Phase Change Material (PCM) was implemented to improve its autonomy in severe outdoor conditions. A further experimental campaign emulated the functioning of the prototype while managing the temperature of a sample solution whose melting temperature was equal to – 21 °C to ensure its liquid state during the tests. The target range for preserving the sample was defined at ± 1 °C. Several real conditions have been considered, such as higher cooling loads realised through 21 litres of additional thermal mass in the refrigerator and pick and place conditions for simulating the opening and closing of the door. The results demonstrate that the solar refrigerator prototype achieves complete autonomy from the electricity grid, paving the way for solutions for preserving perishable goods such as medicines and food in unelectrified areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently, there is considerable emphasis on the electric pump-fed cycle for liquid engine, primarily due to its design simplicity. However, its development is hindered by the underdeveloped state of power battery technology. Drawing inspiration from hybrid power technology used in electric vehicles and turbochargers, a hybrid pump feed system for throttleable engines is originally proposed as a promising solution. This system integrates the electric motor into the gas generator cycle, with several topologies evaluated. The parallel configuration featuring a mid-motor is selected for its compact structure, efficient power-splitting and energy recovery. Additionally, customized energy management strategies and optimization models are developed to effectively allocate power throughout the operational processes of liquid engines. A comparative analysis of four engine cycles is conducted under the typically variable-thrust mission. The results indicate that attributed to the conservation of turbo-gas and battery energy, the optimized hybrid pump achieves a reduction of 2.39 % compared to the turbopump and 7.15 % to the electric pump in total mass. Adaptability assessment further indicates that the mass advantage of the hybrid pump system is more significant during prolonged engine burning and deep throttling. Specific working conditions are found in which the system prefers electric-motor driving or regenerating turbine energy. Although energy-recovery results in the system efficiency decrease, it serves to lower energy demand of battery pack, thus easing the burden on cell thermal management and structural design. This study provides a practical design framework for hybrid pump-fed rocket engines in future variable-thrust missions. • The practical scheme of hybrid pump feed system for liquid engine is originally proposed. • Energy management strategies with respect to throttleable engine mission profile is designed. • A comparison is conducted between the hybrid pump, electric pump, and gas generation cycle. • Long-term firing and prolonged, deep throttling of thrust conditions are effective for the hybrid pump system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pulsating heat pipes are effective heat transfer devices that can provide passive thermal management solutions for electronics and electric vehicle batteries. In this work, the thermal performance and startup characteristics of a specially designed multiplanar PHP are investigated. Hybrid CuO + Fe3O4-water (2 wt. %) nanofluid is used as the working fluid in pulsating heat pipes. The improvement in cooling performance is assessed and compared to that of water. In mobile applications of PHPs like electric vehicle battery thermal management, components are regularly exposed to the vibrations induced by vehicle systems, and hence working characteristics of PHP under vibrations need a detailed investigation. Hence, this work also explores the effect of vibrations (~ 30 Hz) on the thermal performance of pulsating heat pipe to study its feasibility for electric vehicle battery thermal management application. The findings of this work show that with nanofluids, the startup temperature of pulsating heat pipe reduces marginally, and thermal resistance decreases by a maximum of 13.49%. Results also show that under vibrations, pulsating heat pipe shows significantly low startup temperature and reduced thermal resistance. A maximum decrease in thermal resistance under vibrations is observed at 45° pulsating heat pipe inclination; it is 11.40% for water and 8.05% for nanofluid. Also, a regression analysis is conducted to formulate a correlation to predict the thermal resistance of pulsating heat pipes based on different input parameters. The mean absolute percentage deviation (MAPD) between the predicted and experimental data is observed as 4.67% for the correlation based on current study data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Design optimization through the integration of multiple functions into a single part is a highly effective strategy to reduce costs, simplify assembly, improve performance, and reduce weight. Additive manufacturing facilitates the production of complex structures by allowing parts consolidation, resulting in optimized designs, where multiple functions are integrated into a single component. This study presents a design for additive manufacturing method for integrating multiple lattice structures to achieve thermal management and shock absorption functions. The method follows modeling and simulation phases for dimensioning and optimizing solutions to deliver the design functions at different macro- and mesoscale levels. Hierarchical complexity was leveraged to design the two-levels structure in a single part, each delivering a specific function. Specifically, the external layer addresses energy absorption and thermal insulation, while the internal layer acts as a thermal battery by incorporating a phase change material. The design of a container carried by an unmanned aerial vehicle for the transport of healthcare and biological materials is presented. The container is shock-resistant and can maintain the content at 4 ± 2 °C for at least 1 h. As it operates passively without the need for additional energy-consuming devices, it is easy to operate and contributes to increased flight autonomy. A flight mission experiment for urgent transport of blood bags confirmed the capability of the container to preserve blood integrity. This case study demonstrates that the two-layer lattice structure design represents a highly efficient approach to multifunctional design optimization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reducing the temperature of a solar cell increases its efficiency and lifetime. This can be achieved by radiative cooling, a passive and simple method relying on materials that dump heat into outer space by thermal emission within the atmosphere transparency window between 8 and 13μm. As most radiative coolers are expensive or possibly UV unstable, we have recently proposed cement‐based solutions as a robust and cost‐effective alternative. However, the assessment model used describes the cell in the radiative limit and with perfect thermal coupling to the cooler, in line with the literature. In this work, we lift these two approximations, by incorporating Auger and Shockley–Read–Hall nonradiative recombination and a finite heat transfer coefficient at the cell/cooler interface, to obtain a thermal description of the cell/cooler stack closer to reality, while preserving the universality and transparency of the detailed‐balance approach. We use this model to demonstrate that the cell performance gains provided by a radiative cooler are underestimated in the radiative limit and are hence more prominent in devices with stronger nonradiative recombination. Furthermore, we quantify the relation between cell temperature and heat transfer coefficient at the cell/cooler interface and show how this can be used to define design requirements. The extended model developed, and the resulting observations provide important guidelines toward the practical realization of novel radiative coolers for solar cells, including cement‐based ones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Batteries are widely used in energy storage systems (ESS), and thermal runaway in different types of batteries presents varying safety risks. Therefore, comparative research on the thermal runaway behaviors of various batteries is essential. This study investigates the thermal runaway characteristics of sodium-ion batteries (NIBs), lithium iron phosphate batteries (LFP), and lithium-ion batteries with NCM523 and NCM622 cathodes. The experiments were conducted in a nitrogen-filled constant-volume sealed chamber. The results show that the critical surface temperatures at the time of thermal runaway are as follows: LFP (346 °C) > NIBs (292 °C) > NCM523 (290 °C) > NCM622 (281 °C), with LFP batteries exhibiting the highest thermal runaway critical temperature. NIBs have the lowest thermal runaway triggering energy (158 kJ), while LFP has the highest (592.8 kJ). During the thermal runaway of all four battery types, the primary gases produced include carbon dioxide, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane, ethylene, propylene, and ethane. For NCM622 and NCM523, carbon monoxide is the dominant combustible gas, with volume fractions of 35% and 29%, respectively. In contrast, hydrogen is the main flammable gas for LFP and NIBs, with volume fractions of 44% and 30%, respectively. Among these, NIBs have the lowest lower flammability limit (LFL), indicating the highest explosion risk. The thermal runaway characteristics of 50 Ah batteries provide valuable insights for battery selection and design in energy storage applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our study aims to assess the thermal inactivation of non-proteolytic type B Clostridium botulinum spores in a plant-based fish and to evaluate the potential of alternative heat treatments at temperatures below the safe harbor guidelines established for vacuum-packed chilled products of extended durability. First, the heat resistance of the spore suspension was determined using capillary tubes in potassium phosphate buffer at 80°C. The D80 value was estimated to be 0.7–0.8 min. Then, inactivation was studied in a plant-based fish alternative using "thermal cells equipment." Inactivation kinetics were obtained at four temperatures: 78, 81, 84 and 85°C, in duplicates. A secondary model describing log10D values versus temperatures was fitted to the dataset. The model parameters ZT and log10Dref (log10D at Tref 82°C) were estimated to be 8.02 ± 0.46°C and 0.32 ± 0.02, respectively. Model validation was done first with additional data collected at three different temperatures (79.1, 82.5, 87.5°C) and second with literature data. The time required to deliver 6 log reduction in the plant-based food matrix was predicted at temperatures within the range 80–90°C. The recommended processing for vacuum-packed chilled products, 90°C for 10 min, was evaluated. We demonstrated that the recommended processing is approximately five times more than the time required for 6 log reduction of non-proteolytic C. botulinum in the plant-based fish alternative, indicating a substantial margin of safety. Our findings highlight the importance of conducting product-specific studies for the evaluation of thermal processing and the potential of process optimization for certain product categories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• HVAC, drivetrain, and UBE are temperature-sensitive components in BEVs. • HVAC energy consumption has the greatest impact on BEV range. • Heat pump-based heating systems are more energy-efficient than resistive heaters. • Cold weather reduces powertrain and regenerative braking efficiency. • Low temperatures reduce UBE in BEVs, affecting range. This study investigates the impact of ambient temperature on the range of electric vehicles (EVs) by analyzing its effects on usable battery energy (UBE), heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) energy consumption, and powertrain energy losses. Chassis dynamometer tests within a thermal chamber were conducted under various temperature conditions to investigate these impacts. The results indicate that lower temperatures lead to a decrease in UBE for lithium-ion batteries in EVs. At −18 °C, the UBE exhibited reductions of 4–––8 % compared to the UBE at 22 °C. Battery thermal management strategies significantly affected the UBE loss, with different strategies resulting in distinct UBE reductions. HVAC energy consumption, especially for interior heating, proved to be the most dominant variable affecting EV driving range. Larger discrepancies between the HVAC target temperature (22 °C) and the ambient temperature increased HVAC energy usage. The type of HVAC system also influenced energy consumption, where EVs equipped with heat pumps demonstrated lower energy consumption for heating compared to those relying solely on resistance heaters. Ambient temperature also influenced motor energy consumption due to increased frictions, powertrain losses and tire rolling resistance at lower temperatures; consequently, regenerative braking energy decreased in cold conditions. Combining these effects influenced the overall energy consumption and driving range of EVs. At −18 °C, the driving range saw a substantial decrease of up to 60 % compared to 22 °C, while a slight decrease was observed at 35 °C. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a battery thermal management system (BTMS) integrating piezoelectric pump (PP) and thermoelectric coolers (TEC) was designed. In addition, phase change materials (PCM) were also added to the system. When the battery pack was discharged uniformly, the driving frequency of PP was adjusted to ensure that the battery temperature does not exceed the limit value (318.15K) during discharge. A control strategy was designed to adjust the driving frequency of the PP according to the temperature of the outlet coolant and discharge rate of battery when the battery discharge was not uniform, which can ensure that the temperature difference between battery packs does not exceed the limit value (5K). In addition, the suppression effect of thermal management system on thermal runaway under different TEC current was also studied. The experimental and simulation results showed that when the battery pack was discharged uniformly at 2C or 3C, and the driving frequency of the PP was 40HZ and 60HZ respectively, the battery temperature does not exceed the limit and the PCM can be completely transformed to be fully utilized. According to the control strategy, the battery temperature uniformity can be ensured. In addition, the thermal runaway propagation can be effectively inhibited when the TEC current is 4A. • Piezoelectric pump and thermoelectric cooler are integrated for thermal management. • A driving frequency control strategy of piezoelectric pump is presented. • The battery temperature and temperature uniformity are analyzed comprehensively. • The thermal runaway suppression effect is analyzed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As lithium-ion batteries become more prevalent in energy storage, understanding thermal runaway phenomena and characterization methods has gained scientific importance. This study assesses the impact of the State of Charge (SoC) on the internal morphology of lithium-ion batteries after thermal runaway, induced by three methodologies: Heat, Wait, and Seek (thermal abuse), Nail Penetration (mechanical abuse), and Laser Irradiation. The behaviour of 18650 NMC811 cylindrical cells was evaluated using these methods. Post-abuse, the internal morphology was analysed via CT scanning with an X-ray microscope, highlighting deformed areas to reconstruct a three-dimensional model of the cells. The scans were segmented using the U-Net protocol to identify remaining components inside the casings. Results show that cells with lower SoC retain more active material after thermal runaway due to less severe reactions, resulting in less internal collapse compared to fully charged cells. Higher SoC cells exhibited blockages in the venting cap from collapsed materials and metal foils. Among the methodologies, Nail Penetration left the least residual active material and metal foils, while Laser Irradiation caused the least material removal and structural deformation. This study provides new insights into the thermal runaway phenomena under varying states of charge and abuse methodologies. • CT scanning with U-Net enables analysis of the internal morphology of abused cells. • Higher SoC cells face venting blockages due to structure collapse. • High SoC cells show metal-rich spots generated by metal melting. • Nail Penetration removes more active material than HWS and Laser Irradiation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study presents kinetic models for the thermal decomposition of 18650-type lithium-ion battery components during thermal runaway, including the SEI layer, anode, separator, cathode, electrolyte, and binder. The decomposition kinetics were sourced from the literature. The approach used inverse modelling, employing a Genetic Algorithm to estimate kinetic and stoichiometric parameters. Experimental thermogravimetry data from the literature served as the reference benchmarks. The optimisation errors ranged from 0.039 % to 1.531 % , and the algorithm performed well in terms of reaction temperatures, with errors between 0.51 % and 11.07 %. The models were validated for calculating the mass loss of a full cell at 100 % state of charge during thermal runaway. The early stages of thermal runaway, including the decomposition of the anode and separator, were considered in an electrochemical-thermal simulation of charge/discharge cycling using PyBaMM solver. The results showed that these decompositions could advance temperature and voltage profiles by 0.07 C over 20 cycles, aiding early prediction of thermal runaway in battery management systems. This work introduces novel models to calculate mass losses, identify reactions, quantify heat release, and estimate thickness or volume reductions in battery components during thermal runaway. • Kinetic models generated for thermal decomposition of Li-ion battery components. • A Genetic Algorithm used to estimate kinetic and stoichiometric parameters. • Optimisation errors ranged from 0.039 % to 1.531 %. • Models validated for mass loss calculation during thermal runaway. • Models employed for simulating early thermal runaway stages using PyBaMM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Distributed temperature profiling of lithium-ion batteries provides valuable insights, aiding thermal management and minimising risk of battery failures. Highlighted by Batteries Europe as crucial for battery safety, advances in thermal monitoring are imperative to continuous safe adoption of battery technology. Deep Learning techniques have recently emerged as powerful tools for anomaly detection (AD) in many thermal mapping applications. These data-driven methods can handle common challenges like data unavailability or environment variations. Our study devises a methodology to leverage Deep Learning with thermal data from commercially available pouch cells and an infrared camera. We explain the building blocks of FAUAD (Feature-Adapted Unsupervised Anomaly Detection), which models the normality of the input data and synthesizes anomalies in its feature space. The resulting model is benchmarked against some of the latest state-of-the-art methods and achieves high anomaly detection capability; Area Under the ROC Curve (AUROC) score of 0.971 on simulated data, 0.990 on contaminated real data, and a perfect score of 1.0 on real clean data. While maintaining a compact size of 15 MB. FAUAD offers a notable advancement in unsupervised anomaly detection for battery thermal monitoring. The proposed method is cell chemistry agnostic and open to usage scenarios beyond this works' scope. • Unsupervised thermal anomaly detection. • Li-ion cell thermal profiling. • Deep learning using images as training data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A 3D fuel cell transient model with seven layers is developed. • Elevated temperature reduces voltage by 34–78 mV and increases transient behavior. • Dimensionless Damköhler numbers for O 2 and proton transfer are proposed. • Proton conduction is crucial for heat transfer and reactions at high temperatures. • Elevated pressure boosts proton conduction by 12–54 % and performance by 50–150 mV. Next-generation proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) encounter significant challenges at elevated temperatures (OTs) and pressures (OPs) due to local thermal and mass fluctuations. In this study, a three-dimensional transient model was developed to analyze these dynamics by incorporating the effects of the microporous layer and variations in the coolant temperature along the channel. The results indicate that increasing the OT from 80 °C to 90 °C decreases the output voltage by 34–78 mV, increases voltage undershoot/overshoot by 0.2–16.6 mV, and raises the temperature difference between the cathode catalyst layer (cCL) and coolant from 1.2 to 2.1 °C, leading to more irregular temperature fluctuations in the cCL. These effects stem from the increased gas–liquid water outflow within the cCL that induces membrane dehydration, particularly in the electrolyte near the channel. Consequently, the lag in proton conduction relative to the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), as quantified by the newly introduced Damköhler number, has emerged as a critical factor that influences both heat transfer and reaction kinetics. Conversely, increasing OPs from 130 kPa [anode]/120 kPa [cathode] to 400 kPa [anode]/390 kPa [cathode] improves output voltage by 50–150 mV and reduces proton conduction hysteresis by 12–54 % under dynamic loads. This improvement is linked to higher O 2 concentration and membrane water facilitated by a 0.6–2 °C decrease in cCL temperature. However, the rise in OPs also results in an increased voltage undershoot/overshoot due to greater fluctuations in the membrane water content, ultimately leading to additional power loss. These findings are crucial for optimizing PEMFC performance under extreme conditions and advancing fuel cell technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The explosion characteristics of typical carbonates and BVG were experimentally investigated at elevated temperatures. • The CHEMKIN was utilized to calculate and analyse the LFL and LOC of the mixtures of carbonates and BVG. • The combustion reaction process of mixtures of carbonates and BVG was analyzed by using CHEMKIN. The electrolyte is a critical component of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). The electrolyte commonly consists of carbonate mixture and lithium salt. During thermal runaway, the carbonate mixture is vented into the environment along with LIBs venting gases, potentially leading to fire or explosion incidents. In this study, in an 8 − L stainless steel cylindrical explosion vessel, the explosion characteristics of carbonates (dimethyl carbonate (DMC) and ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC)), and LIBs venting gases were identified, and the mutual influences between different carbonates were also clarified, and the effects of carbonate mixture on explosion characteristics of LIBs venting gases were investigated, such as the overpressure, the rate of pressure rise, lower flammability limits (LFL) and limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC). The results indicated that the explosion severity of carbonate mixture (DMC and EMC) increased with the increasing EMC content. As the carbonate mixture content increased in mixtures of carbonates and LIBs venting gases, the maximum overpressure, the maximum rate of pressure rise and LOC increased, while LFL showed a decrease trend. Furthermore, the LOC prediction method of NFPA 69 (A standard offers a method for estimating the LOC for fuels) can predict LOC well on LIBs venting mixtures. The LFL of the mixture of carbonates and gases vented from LIBs was calculated by using CHEMKIN. The results showed that the calculated values were good agreement with the experimental data. Moreover, the changes in the concentration of intermediate products during the combustion of the mixture were analyzed. It was found that introducing EMC and DMC mixtures into the gases vented by LIBs caused an increase in the concentrations of H 2 , CO and C 2 H 4 in the reactants. The underlying causes of this phenomenon were sufficiently analyzed and discussed. The findings of this research contribute to a deeper understanding of the risks associated with mixtures vented from LIBs and offer valuable insights for designing explosion-proof transport containers and LIBs energy storage stations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lithium battery fires pose a significant threat to life and property. Prompt fire suppression intervention is crucial to suppress the development of such fires. To investigate the effectiveness of various common handheld fire extinguishers on lithium iron phosphate battery fires, we constructed an experimental platform for fire suppression in the event of thermal runaway in lithium batteries. Using 60 Ah lithium iron phosphate batteries as the experimental subjects, we selected ten extinguishing agents including water, water mist, dry powder, heptafluoropropane, carbon dioxide, water-based, 3% aqueous film-forming foam, perfluorohexanone, hydrogel, and liquid nitrogen. We conducted comparative experiments on the fire suppression efficiency of these agents for 60 Ah lithium iron phosphate battery fires. The study showed that: A 20-s discharge of water, dry powder, carbon dioxide, and 3% aqueous film-forming foam could not effectively prevent the re-ignition of thermally runaway batteries. Furthermore, a 20-s discharge of water mist, heptafluoropropane, water-based, and perfluorohexanone could not completely halt the spread of thermal runaway behavior, with adjacent batteries showing varying degrees of thermal runaway signs. Compared to the other eight extinguishing agents, liquid nitrogen and hydrogel demonstrated the best fire suppression effects. After a 20-s discharge of liquid nitrogen and hydrogel, the thermally affected battery did not re-ignite, and adjacent batteries showed no signs of thermal runaway. Continuous 20-s nitrogen injection reduced the surface temperature of the thermally runaway battery to − 118°C, doubling the cooling rate compared to hydrogel. Additionally, liquid nitrogen reduced the CO concentration in the experimental chamber from 724 to 232 ppm, thereby reducing the explosion risk of flammable gases. This study serves as a reference for selecting handheld extinguishing agents for lithium battery fires. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The safety of lithium metal batteries (LMBs) is a critical barrier to their further development towards achieving higher energy densities exceeding 400 Wh kg−1. Although the incorporation of flame-retardant additives into the liquid electrolyte can enhance the safety of LMBs, it often compromises electrochemical performance. To achieve a balance, a flame-retardant separator with thermally responsive properties has been developed by coating a core-shell flame-retardant polymer (poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) as the shell and tris (pentafluorophenyl) phosphine (TPFPP) as the core) onto a polyethylene (PE) separator using an aqueous technique. Compared to the original PE separator, the TPFPP@PMMA flame-retardant separator exhibits superior mechanical strength and electrolyte wettability, along with significantly improved flame retardancy and thermal stability. Due to the excellent compatibility of PMMA polymer with lithium anode, a stable cycle life of over 500 hours for the Li||Li symmetrical coin cell has been achieved. The capacity retention of the Li||LiNi 0.8 Co 0.1 Mn 0.1 O 2 battery is higher than that of the PE separator (80.0% vs. 65.8%) after 100 cycles between 3.0 V and 4.35 V, ascribed to the formation of a stable and robust cathode electrolyte interface (CEI) film, primarily composed of rich LiF and poor Li 2 CO 3 on the cathode surface, induced by the PT/PE separator. Thus, the developed flame-retardant separator offers new prospects to the revival of high-energy-density LMBs. [Display omitted] • TPFPP flame retardant is wrapped by PMMA polymer to form the core-shell structure. • PT/PE flame-retardant separator is obtained by coating TPFPP@PMMA on PE support. • TPFPP can timely release to deter thermal runaway of battery in thermal anomalies. • PT/PE separator is compatible with both lithium anode and high-voltage cathode. • PT/PE assists in forming LiF-rich and Li 2 CO 3 -poor CEI film on the NCM811 surface. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Gases released during thermal runaway of lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries were investigated. • Combustion mechanisms using CHEMKIN software were comprehensively analyzed. • The highest gas hazard in batteries charged at 1.0C to 100% state of charge (SOC) was observed. • Superior suppression effects of dimethyl methylphosphonate (DMMP) compared to H 2 O and Novec-1230 were exhibited. • The H radical facilitates the increase in temperature, whereas the HO 2 radical suppresses the temperature rise. The gases released after the thermal runaway (TR) of batteries are important factors that trigger battery fires and explosions. This study collected gases generated by lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries with different remaining capacities under various charging states due to thermal abuse leading to TR. The combustion mechanisms of various gas components produced during battery thermal runaway were coupled and validated using CHEMKIN software, including vapor components of electrolytes such as dimethyl carbonate (DMC), H 2 , CH 4 , C 2 H 6 , C 2 H 4 , C 3 H 8 , CO, and CO 2. The main conclusions of this study are as follows: Batteries charged at a rate of 1.0C and heated to 100 % state of charge (SOC) exhibit the highest levels of gas hazards, with the primary components being H 2 , CO 2 , C 2 H 4 , CO, and CH 4. H 2 accounts for nearly two-thirds of the total gas composition. Simulation results show that the laminar burning velocity (LBV) reaches 73.2 cm·s−1, and the flame temperature is 2261.6 K. As the proportion of DMC in the combustible gas mixture increases, both the flame temperature and net heat release decrease. At an equivalence ratio of 1.0, with 5 % dimethyl methylphosphonate (DMMP) added, the flame temperature decreases by 32.0 %, the laminar burning velocity decreases by 97.4 %, and the net heat release decreases by 99.7 %. Compared to H 2 O and perfluorohexanone(Novec-1230), DMMP demonstrates superior suppression effects on LFP batteries. Among the radicals, the H radical is the most significant in promoting temperature rise, while the HO 2 radical plays the most prominent role in inhibiting the temperature increase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Multi-physics battery model and topology optimization is integrated. • A framework of RSM and TOPSIS is proposed to seek optimal solution. • TOCP shows better heat transfer and pump consumption than traditional design. Developing energy storage system based on lithium-ion batteries has become a promising route to mitigate the intermittency of renewable energies and improve their utilization efficiency. In this context, thermal management is needed to maintain battery temperature and thermal uniformity without consuming significant power. However, conventional cooling plates are usually built via trial-and-error methods, which suffer from trade-off problem between thermal performance and flow resistance. In this study, a multi-physics model incorporating electrochemical, hydrodynamic, and thermal fields is proposed for a battery pack. Meanwhile, a multi-objective topology optimization is introduced to freely evolve the distribution of fluid domain embedded into cold plate under specified constraint conditions. The multi-objective function is formulated using normalized additive weighting approach. Based on this, the mapping relations between design parameters (i.e., Reynold number and weighting coefficients) and performance of cold plate can be established via response surface method, and it is further optimized with a non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm. Results show that topological channel structure performs lower average temperature rise than traditional straight, serpentine, and hexagonal cold plates. When the mass flow rate ranges from 1 × 10-3 to 15 × 10-3 kg s−1, Nusselt number difference are varied from 1.33 to 5.90 compared to straight cold plate, which are improved by 15.6 to 42.2 %, respectively. This indicates that optimized cold plate achieves better heat exchange ability under the same inlet conditions. Besides, optimal design allows for excellent thermal uniformity without excessive pressure drop compared to serpentine cold plate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • A novel bi-directional freeze-casting method integrates aerogel into energy systems. • Fabricated aerogel structures enhance mass transfer, mimicking fin-like formations. • Adsorption/desorption times are reduced by ∼ 35 % due to improved mass transfer. • Energy storage capacity was boosted by 27 % with a 61 % increase in power density. • Specific cooling power increased by 68–98 % compared to previous reported results. In the rapidly advancing field of energy storage technologies, achieving efficiency and sustainability has become paramount, with adsorption playing a crucial role. This adsorption process benefits significantly from aerogel-based structures due to their inherent porosity and customizable architectures, which facilitate exceptional heat- and mass-transfer capabilities. However, despite extensive research on optimizing aerogel microstructures for enhanced adsorption, integrating these materials into practical energy storage systems remains challenging. To overcome this, we present a flow-driven directional freeze-casting technique that integrates aerogels with radially oriented pore networks onto tubular components, forming well-aligned, fin-like structures. This innovative method increases the practical applicability of aerogels in real-world energy storage systems. By adjusting process conditions, we achieve a further improved alignment similar to longitudinal finned structures, significantly enhancing mass transfer. This improved alignment results in ∼ 35 % reductions in both adsorption and desorption times compared to the lowest alignment sample. Based on the measured adsorption characteristics, the performance estimation for thermal energy storage systems integrating the tailored aerogel structure showed a 61 % increase in power density compared to the highest recently reported value for sorption-based thermal battery. When applied to adsorption heat pump systems, the estimated specific cooling power improved by 68–98 % compared to other reported adsorbent composites. These results highlight the potential of our novel aerogel integration technique to enhance thermal management solutions and significantly advance adsorption-based energy systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growing development of lithium-ion battery technology goes along with the new energy storage era across various sectors, e.g., mobility (electric vehicles), power generation and dispatching. The need for sophisticated modeling approaches has become a crucial tool to predict and optimize battery behavior given the demand of ever-higher performance, longevity, and safety. This review integrates the state-of-the-art in lithium-ion battery modeling, covering various scales, from particle-level simulations to pack-level thermal management systems, involving particle scale simplifications, microscale electrochemical models, and battery scale electrical models with thermal and heat generation prediction. Beyond that, authors highlight the growing trend in integrating highly accurate physics-based with thermal approaches such as the electrochemical-thermal coupled model to fully answer the multiscale challenges. Through capturing the electrochemical phenomena and thermal dynamics, and developing a comprehensive understanding of battery kinetics, safety risks such as thermal runaway can be thoroughly mitigated. Authors emphasize the trade-offs between computational efficiency and model complexity, explaining the limitations, strengths, and applications of diverse modeling approaches. This review illuminates the integration of battery management systems and cooling strategies. • Lithium-ion battery electrochemical and thermal dynamics are comprehensively reviewed. • Multiscale modeling is analyzed, considering physical limits and computational costs. • Systematic physics-based model comparison: strengths and limitations are detailed. • Scale-specific physical complexities are schematized for clarity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The thermal management system of electric vehicles is crucial for both the range and the safety of battery. To compensate for the slightly inferior cooling performance of CO 2 refrigeration, an enhanced automotive thermal management system based on energy cascade utilization was designed and evaluated. Initially, a dual-evaporation pressure thermal management system was designed to meet varying temperature requirements for the cabin and battery, and an experimental platform was constructed. Subsequently, the dynamic and steady state operating characteristics of the dual-evaporative pressure system are investigated. It was found that compared to traditional systems, the enhanced system significantly enhances performance across various operating conditions. The degree of performance improvement is influenced by factors such as the flow ratio between the battery and cabin branches and the thermal load of the battery. Additionally, the dynamic response characteristics of the new system are smoother compared to the conventional system, indicating reliable operation. Provides a promising solution for enhancing battery thermal management while reducing energy consumption, thereby improving the driving range and efficiency of electric vehicles. • Proposes an enhanced CO₂ thermal management architecture for vehicles. • Explores compressor, conditions, and intermediate pressure interactions. • Analyses DEP-TMS performance improvements over T-TMS under various conditions. • Investigates performance enhancement via sub-cycle disassembly mechanisms. • Reveals dynamic response characteristics of DEP-TMS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the major challenges currently facing electric vehicles (EVs) is the effective thermal management of their battery packs, which significantly impacts both battery performance and longevity. Temperature control is a critical parameter for ensuring efficient battery thermal management systems (BTMS), making the development of effective real-time heat dissipation technologies essential. Presently, most EVs utilize indirect liquid-cooling systems, which effectively reduce battery temperatures but are limited by issues such as high pumping power requirements and non-uniform temperature distribution, necessitating further research and optimization. This study examines the limitations of conventional liquid and air-cooling approaches while exploring the development potential of phase change materials (PCM) enhanced with metal foam, integrated with liquid-cooling as a promising alternative. Additionally, the current status of hybrid and immersion cooling systems is comprehensively reviewed. The effects of operational strategies and system design structures on performance and energy consumption are also evaluated. Notably, the hybrid cold plate design demonstrated a 53 % reduction in overall weight compared to the baseline design, which resulted in a 90 % decrease in power consumption. Furthermore, this study explores the impacts of BTMS on the life cycle cost, lifespan, and carbon footprint of EVs batteries. The results indicate that PCM embedded with metal foam, combined with liquid-cooling, is a highly suitable choice for fast-charging and high energy density batteries. Finally, challenges and recommendations for future research are presented to advance the field of battery thermal management systems. [Display omitted] • Li-ion battery configurations and thermal issues for batteries were presented. • Various BTM technologies for faster charging/discharging conditions are discussed. • Economic and environmental analysis for BTMSs is also presented. • The key challenges and future research prospects for BTMSs are also presented. • Hybrid BTMS with metal foam is the most suitable BTMSs for high charging rates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A lamellar structure NiCl 2 / g -C 3 N 4 cathode composite is fabricated. • g -C 3 N 4 inhibits the direct contact between NiCl 2 and ternary lithium electrolyte. • The composite material has a layered structure and a large specific surface area. • The internal resistance is reduced and the thermal activation time is shortened. • The composite has excellent discharge capacity and energy storage properties. The NiCl 2 cathode material used in thermal batteries still encounters challenges such as poor compatibility with ternary electrolytes, high polarization internal resistance and long activation time, all of which hinder its widespread application. In this research, lamellar structure NiCl 2 / g -C 3 N 4 cathode composites (NCCN) are prepared by the ball milling-calcination method. The triangular porous structure of graphitic carbon nitride (g -C 3 N 4) promotes the specific surface area of the material and accelerates the transport of reactive particles. Meanwhile, the protective effect of g -C 3 N 4 mitigates direct contact between NiCl 2 and the ternary lithium electrolyte, improving the discharge compatibility of the battery. The attraction of free electrons by the pyridine nitrogen reduces the energy barrier for carrier transition from the valence band to the conduction band, thereby enhancing the conductivity of NiCl₂. The 5 wt.% g -C 3 N 4 -modified NiCl 2 composite exhibits a high discharge capability, high-rate performance and a relatively short thermal activation time. At a cut-off voltage of 1.50 V and a current density of 300 mA cm−2, it achieves a specific capacity of 310.74 mAh g−1 and a high specific energy of 701.39 Wh kg−1. Furthermore, the thermal activation time of the 5 wt.% g -C 3 N 4 -modified NiCl 2 composite was reduced by about 40 % in comparison to that of pure NiCl 2 , which is of great significance for broadening the application of NiCl 2 -based cathode materials in the field of emergency equipment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The occurrence of an Internal Short-Circuit (ISC) in 18650 lithium-ion cells under thermal abuse conditions remains elusive. Equipped with Current Interrupt Devices (CID), the cell's voltage drop may introduce ambiguity, and potentially obscure the precise determination of an ISC. Therefore, comprehensive investigations were undertaken to rigorously explore the ISC and thermal runaway (TR) relationship. In this paper, and for the first time, a three-electrode 18650 lab-scale cell is tested in an Accelerated Rate Calorimeter (ARC) to analyze the potentials' variation under adiabatic conditions. Results have shown that the cell's voltage drop coincides with the positive potential drop (E we). Furthermore, tests on cells without CID have indicated that the accelerated TR is triggered following the massive ISC. Moreover, for a long time, the ISC has been associated with the melting of the separator. Hence, this study includes tests on identical lab-scale cells utilizing three types of separators: polyethylene, trilayer, and coated polypropylene. TR tests, conducted under adiabatic and ambient conditions, didn't reveal a significant impact of the separators. Given that the novel preliminary test developed in this study has demonstrated that the loss of their mechanical integrity happens at around the same temperature, the outcomes of the TR tests were comparable. • Voltage drops in standard 18650 cell due to the activation of the safety device. • Hard internal short-circuit investigated on cells without current interrupt devices. • Three-electrodes 18650 cell tested in an accelerated rate calorimeter. • New methodology for testing the mechanical integrity of separators in 18650 cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the demand for lithium-ion batteries rapidly increases there is a need to design these cells in a safe manner to mitigate thermal runaway. Thermal runaway in batteries leads to an uncontrollable temperature rise and potentially battery fires, which is a major safety concern. Typically, when modeling the chemical kinetics of thermal runaway calorimetry data (e.g. Accelerating Rate Calorimetry (ARC)) is needed to determine the temperature-driven decomposition kinetics. Conventional methods of fitting Arrhenius Ordinary Differential Equation (ODE) thermal runaway models to ARC data make several assumptions that reduce the fidelity and generalizability of the obtained model. In this paper, Chemical Reaction Neural Networks (CRNNs) are trained to fit the kinetic parameters of N-equation Arrhenius ODEs to ARC data obtained from a Molicel 21700 P45B. The models are found to be better approximations of the experimental data. The flexibility of the method is demonstrated by experimenting with two-equation and four-equation models. Thermal runaway simulations are conducted in 3D using the obtained kinetic parameters, showing the applicability of the obtained thermal runaway models to large-scale simulations. [Display omitted] • Thermal runaway (T.R) models of battery cells are fit to ARC data. • Linear fitting to ARC data is demonstrated and poor quality of fit is discussed. • Chemical Reaction Neural Networks (CRNN) are used to improve the linear fit. • CRNN models fit ARC data better and are demonstrated on 3D T.R simulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • An exhaustive analysis of heat generation and thermal issues in batteries is discussed. • A comprehensive examination of diverse battery cooling methods is reviewed. • The integration of PCM and NePCM into batteries and their subsequent performance were reviewed. • The economic viability of BTM systems utilizing PCM/NePCM is extensively scrutinized. • The comprehension of BTMS challenges and prospective avenues for further study are emphasized. The widespread adoption of lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries in electric and hybrid vehicles has garnered significant attention due to their high energy density, impressive power-to-mass ratio, and extended lifespan. However, challenges like non-uniform temperature distribution, suboptimal energy storage, and slower release rates have surfaced. The rising incidents of battery explosions underscore the urgent need for a thorough understanding of Li-ion battery technology, particularly in thermal management. This knowledge is vital for maintaining batteries within an optimal temperature range, improving operational efficiency, and ensuring stability and safety. This review section meticulously explores critical aspects of battery thermal management, focusing on the process of heat generation and transfer within the cell and module. It also examines the thermal management challenges through active and passive techniques, emphasizing advancements in heat transfer methodologies. The investigation of integrating nano-enhanced phase change materials (NePCMs) with Li-ion batteries is particularly noteworthy as a promising approach to enhance thermal conductivity and management. The review comprehensively elaborates on the functions, strategies, emerging concerns, integration methodologies, and benefits of NePCMs, thoroughly examining their impact on thermal management. This comprehensive review anticipates advancements in this vital domain, envisioning development trends and prospects associated with the application of NePCMs in battery thermal management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the rapid development of lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries, battery thermal management (BTMS) is increasingly essential for the temperature control of Li-ion batteries. The energy required to control temperature is coming into focus. In order to consume less energy to control temperature and improve temperature uniformity, the liquid-cooled plate (LCP) based on bionic flow channels evolved from the shape of leaf veins and tree roots is proposed. In this BLCP, different from the others BLCPs, it is divided into a reinforced heat exchange area located in the middle and back part of the plate and a normal area located in the front part of the plate. Firstly, 16 sets of orthogonal tests are conducted based on four parameters: the distance of the hexagon from the outlet (a), the distance from the inlet (b), the distance between two adjacent hexagons (c) and the size of the hexagon (d). Secondly, Optimization was investigated based on NSGA-II for two objectives: temperature and pressure drop. The simulation results are analyzed based on the optimized structural parameters (a = 30 mm, b = 8 mm, c = 50 mm and d = 90 mm). After Comparing the optimization results with the simulation results, the temperature and pressure drop errors were 0.56 percent and 3.8 percent, respectively. The effects of flow rate and thickness of the fluid domain on temperature and pressure drop are next discussed separately. Finally, after comparing the optimized bionic liquid cooling plate (BLCP) with the conventional liquid cooling plate (CLCP) based on temperature pressure drop, velocity, and synergy angle, conclusions are made at the same inlet width, height, flow rate, and velocity (V = 0.2 m/s). This leads to the criterion of energy loss becoming only the pressure drop. The BLCP for pressure drop is 14.2 percent lower than the CLCP, which means less energy loss. The maximum temperature of the BLCP is 0.7 °C lower than that of the CLCP. Furthermore, the former has a better ability to suppress the rate of temperature rise and better temperature uniformity. In addition, this proposed new structure and research methods can be applied to the subsequent study of LCP. • A liquid-cooled plate combining leaf veins and tree roots uses less energy to control and improve temperature uniformity. • The division of general and enhanced heat transfer zones and structure of enhanced heat transfer zone enhances heat transfer. • The orthogonal tests and algorithmic optimization can select the best structure considering the maximum temperature and pressure drop. • Without changing flow rate or velocity, the maximum temperature decreases by 0.7 °C, and the pressure drop decreases by 14.2 percent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Renewable energy, in particular, is critical for a sustainable world. Effective storage of energy is at the heart of all systems. While energy storage allows us to preserve the beauties offered by nature, it also requires innovative solutions that push the limits of technology. The most important factor affecting the performance of batteries is their temperature. For this reason, the serpentine cooling model, which is an innovative battery cooling method, was evaluated in this study. Generally, in the literature, batteries are considered as heat masses and given a certain heat flux and their temperature distributions are examined. In this study, batteries were connected to each other with busbars as in reality and thermal analyses were performed. In addition, a serpentine cooling method, which has never been used before, was tried as a cooling method in batteries. While all these evaluations were made, statistical analyses were performed for the priority order of the parameters used. All of these situations show how innovative the study is. The NTGK model was used in CFD analyses. 5 different parameters were considered. These are the discharge rate (0.5C, 1C, 1.5C, 2C and 2.5C), the type of refrigerant (air and water), the speed at which the refrigerant enters the model (0.01 m/s, 0.03 m/s and 0.05 m/s), the ambient temperature (293K, 298K and 300K), and the SOH value (50 %, 65 %, 75 %).Water has been shown to be a better refrigerant than air. As the inlet speed of the refrigerant was increased, the discharge rate was reduced, and the SOH value decreased, the temperature values obtained by the model were lower. The temperature values of the batteries according to their location in the model were also examined. 5-factor, 2-level experiments were conducted to examine statistically. It was checked whether the created values fit the distributions and it was seen that the most effective parameter used in the model was the type of refrigerant. In addition, the most statistically effective working conditions were also determined. • The NTGK model was used in the CFD analysis of the batteries. • The batteries were connected to each other with busbars. • According to statistical analysis, the most effective parameter is the cooler type. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• W-based carbides were prepared by in-situ pyrolysis of PW 12 -based MOFs ZIF-8. • The pyrolysis process exhibits the transformation of PW 12 @ZIF-8 → WC→W 1-x C→W 2 C. • The DSSCs with W 2 C - based CE achieved the highest PCE of 5.78 %. The preparation of counter electrodes (CEs) catalysts at different pyrolysis temperatures will directly affect the composition, morphology, and performance of the catalysts in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) applications. Herein, four W-based carbides catalysts were derived from H 3 PW 12 O 40 -based ZIF-8 metal–organic frameworks (PW 12 @ZIF-8) by in-situ pyrolysis at 600, 700, 800, and 900 ℃ under N 2 atmosphere. The pyrolysis mechanism and structure characteristics of the prepared W-based carbides with temperature variation were confirmed by TG-DTG-DSC simultaneous, XRD, XPS, TEM, SEM and N 2 adsorption/desorption, which exhibits the gradual transformation of PW 12 @ZIF–8 → WC-C→WC→W 1-x C→W 2 C. Furthermore, the photovoltaic performance of four different W-based carbides as CEs catalysts for regenerating I 3 −/I− shuttles in DSSCs were identified by photocurrent-voltage (J-V) measurement, which achieved PCEs of 4.63, 4.91, 5.05 and 5.78 %, respectively. As a result, W 2 C (900 ℃) provide more vacancies and defects on the catalyst surface as abundant catalytic active sites, as well as promote the appearance of more pores and voids in the morphology to diffuse and permeate electrolyte due to the highest specific surface area, and the PCE value of 5.78 % was also superior to 5.51 % of Pt CE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The thermal management of lithium-ion battery packs (LIBP) is crucial in ensuring safe and efficient operation in electric vehicles (EVs). The major concern of LIBP is to keep it at an appropriate temperature during the energizing and draining processes. The present work reviews the critical role of duct design in enhancing the efficiency of air-cooled LIBs, by comparing symmetrical and asymmetrical duct configurations. Furthermore, the present review assesses in what way the optimized airflow distribution can significantly improve heat dissipation and temperature uniformity across battery modules. Further, works pertaining to the determination of the optimized designs of the ducts are explored with the installation of different types of augmented components for the air-cooling techniques focusing on factors, such as cooling rate, airflow resistance, and temperature gradients, using the computational fluid dynamics have been analyzed. The summary of the review concludes that symmetrical ducts not only enable more uniform temperature control but also contribute to energy savings by reducing the power required for cooling fans. Additionally, the review also highlights the potential for duct optimization as a simple, cost-effective solution for meeting the thermal management requirements in next-generation LIBPs in EVs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lithium is crucial in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), serving as a main component of the electrolyte and cathode. Elements such as cobalt, nickel, and manganese are also vital for high performance, energy density, and stability. This study aimed to examine the behaviour of end-of-life cathode material (LiNi 0.6 Mn 0.2 Co 0.2 O 2) and its valuable metals after exposure to temperatures between 100 and 400 °C, comparing it with untreated material. The lithium content cannot be reliably determined by conventional analytical methods, so inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) was chosen for this purpose. For ICP-OES measurements, samples were dissolved in different solvents for a specified time, and the concentrations of lithium, nickel, manganese, and cobalt were measured. From the measured values, their theoretical yields were calculated. Due to the annealing at given temperatures and subsequent dissolution, this step can be considered as the first stage of the pyrometallurgical-hydrometallurgical process used in battery recycling. The study was complemented by further analyses to monitor the effect of annealing temperatures on the properties of the material. Based on the results, it was found that the highest theoretical yield in this temperature range was for material annealed at 400 °C and dissolved in 20 % nitric acid for 4 h. • First step of pyro-hydrometallurgical process: heat treated cathode at 100–400 °C. • ICP-OES analysis of valuable metals (Li, Ni, Mn, Co). • Analysis of NMC spinel using XRF, XRD, TGA, SEM/EDS. • Leaching efficiency of NMC in demineralized water and nitric acid. • Comparison of yield with other recycling techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The inner pressure that increases due to the complex physical and chemical reactions of batteries plays an important role in thermal runaway early warning and gas injection. However, most of the current thermal-pressure coupling models for batteries cannot accurately describe the gas generation sources and predict the inner pressure increases of multiple jelly rolls. In this work, we propose a thermal-pressure coupling model by combining the gas composition data and the fitting data from the accelerating rate calorimeter experiment. The electrolyte vapor pressure and internal gas composition are obtained under uniform heating conditions. The internal pressure growth source relies on the variation in the gas composition at different temperature ranges to infer. The reaction kinetics equations are then combined with gas generation sources, energy conservation equations and venting process to form a thermal-pressure model, which adopts a distributed structure to adapt to the temperature gradient between jelly rolls. The simulation results indicate that the model can accurately match the reaction gas accumulation phase before the valve venting, as well as the thermal runaway and cooling process temperature after the ejection. The simulation results indicate that when the pressure threshold increases from 0.5 MPa to 0.75 MPa, both the time-to-venting and time-to-peak temperature increase, but the interval between them decreases. Additionally, the explosion concentration range of the mixture gas also increases accordingly. This model revealed the inner pressure increase and thermal runaway process in large-format lithium iron phosphate batteries, offering guidance for early warning and safety design. [Display omitted] • The inner pressure and gas components of the large-format battery are obtained from the ARC test. • A distributed thermal-gas coupling model for large-format battery is established. • Gas generation from evaporation and reaction is included based on ARC test. • The influence of pressure threshold on gas composition and thermal runaway is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, frequent fire accidents with lithium-ion batteries have seriously restricted the application and development of lithium-ion batteries in energy storage and other fields. To study the fire extinguishing agent for thermal runaway of lithium-ion batteries, a self-built fire extinguishing experimental platform was established. Then, expandable vermiculite powder was selected and modified by inorganic salts for fire extinguishing experiments. Under the same working conditions, a comparative analysis was conducted on the fire extinguishing time, temperature suppression efficiency, reignition situation, and toxicity inhibition effect of different fire extinguishing agents and ABC dry powder. The results show that, in terms of fire extinguishing time, the fire extinguishing effect is ranked from high to low as MgCl2 vermiculite powder, NaHCO3 vermiculite powder, 45 μm vermiculite powder, 100 μm vermiculite powder, 75 μm vermiculite powder, and ABC dry powder. As for the temperature rise inhibition effect, the order of superiority is MgCl2 vermiculite powder, NaHCO3 vermiculite powder, 45 μm vermiculite powder, 75 μm vermiculite powder, 100 μm vermiculite powder, and ABC dry powder. The advantages of each fire extinguishing agent in reducing the suffocation toxicity of fire extinguishing systems are ranked as MgCl2 vermiculite powder, NaHCO3 vermiculite powder, 45 μm vermiculite powder, 100 μm vermiculite powder, 75 μm vermiculite powder, and ABC dry powder. At last, from the perspective of reignition, MgCl2 vermiculite powder did not show any reignition after extinguishing, while other extinguishing media showed reignition. Overall, MgCl2 vermiculite powder has the best extinguishing efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Presents a method to measure heat generation of a cylindrical lithium ion battery. • Effects of high and low temperature rises on battery heat generation is revealed. • Falling temperature and ascending discharge rate increase battery heat generation. • This study profits the thermal design of electric vehicle battery pack. Measuring the thermal performance of lithium-ion battery cells is a critical task in the thermal design of electric vehicle battery packs. This study introduces a quantitative method to assess the thermal performance of cylindrical 21,700 cells considering heat loss, under conditions of both high and low temperature-rises. By supervising the cell's outgoing heat-flux (heat loss), we thoroughly analyzed the differences in cell heat generation rates between high temperature-rise (HTR) and low temperature-rise (LTR) conditions. The results show that under LTR conditions, the cell heat generation exhibits a "fast-slow-fast" increasing trend, while under HTR conditions, it displays a U-shaped pattern. Notably, the mean cell heat generation rate increases with decreasing temperatures and increasing discharge rates, especially under LTR conditions, where it significantly outperforms that under HTR conditions. This method provides valuable insights for optimizing the thermal design of battery packs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]