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Recently, the convolutional neural network (CNN) has gained widespread adoption in the hyperspectral image (HSI) classification owing to its remarkable feature extraction capability. However, the fixed acceptance domain of CNN restricts it to Euclidean image data only, making it difficult to capture complex information in hyperspectral data. To overcome this problem, much attention has been paid to the graph attention network (GAT), which can effectively model graph structure and capture complex dependencies between nodes. However, GAT usually acts on superpixel nodes, which may lead to the loss of pixel-level information. To better integrate the advantages of both, we propose a CNN-assisted multi-hop graph attention network (CMGAT) for HSI classification. Specifically, a parallel dual-branch architecture is first constructed to simultaneously capture spectral-spatial features from hyperspectral data at the superpixel and pixel levels using GAT and CNN, respectively. On this basis, the multi-hop and multi-scale mechanisms are further employed to construct a multi-hop GAT module and a multi-scale CNN module to capture diverse feature information. Secondly, an attention module is cascaded before the multi-scale CNN module to improve classification performance. Eventually, the output information from the two branches is weighted and fused to produce the classification result. We performed experiments on four benchmark HSI datasets, including Indian Pines (IP), University of Pavia (UP), Salinas Valley (SV) and WHU-Hi-LongKou (LK). The results demonstrate that the proposed method outperforms several deep learning methods, achieving overall accuracies of 95.67%, 99.04%, 99.55% and 99.51%, respectively, even with fewer training samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hyperspectral image classification (HSI) is a vital aspect of remote sensing technology. However, the high-dimensional nature of HSI and the continuous spectral bands significantly impact its classification performance. In this paper, we propose a classification method called MBSFC for HSI classification. MBSFC utilizes multi-branch and spectral feature conversion (SFC) techniques to eliminate redundant information and extract valuable features. Firstly, to preserve spectral-spatial information, the SFC block is introduced to eliminate redundant information through up-sampling. Subsequently, the feature maps from the SFC block and the spectral bands reduced by a factor of four are fed into three branches: the spectral branch, spatial-X branch, and spatial-Y branch. Each branch employs a 3D-CNN-based dense block and attention mechanism to extract useful features. Finally, the obtained features from the three branches are fused for HSI classification. To cater to different application scenarios, we divide MBSFC into three models with different network structures: MBSFC-s, MBSFC-m, and MBSFC-l. The MBSFC-l model, with a three-branch structure, achieves the best performance. The three models differ in the number of branches in the feature extraction. Experimental results on four publicly available hyperspectral datasets show that MBSFC achieves competitive results with small samples compared to other state-of-the-art methods. The code is available at . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Remote sensing hyperspectral images (HSIs) are rich sources of information about land cover captured across hundreds of narrow, contiguous spectral wavelength bands. However, using the entire original HSI for practical applications can lead to suboptimal classification accuracy. To address this, band reduction techniques, categorized as feature extraction and feature selection methods, are employed to enhance classification results. One commonly used feature extraction approach for HSIs is Principal Component Analysis (PCA). However, PCA may fall short of capturing the local and specific characteristics present in the HSI data. In this paper, we introduce two novel feature extraction methods: Segmented Truncated Singular Value Decomposition (STSVD) and Spectrally Segmented Truncated Singular Value Decomposition (SSTSVD) to improve classification performance. Segmentation is carried out based on highly correlated bands’ segments and spectral bands’ segments within the HSI data. Our study evaluates and compares these newly proposed methods against classical feature extraction methods, including PCA, Incremental PCA, Sparse-PCA, Kernel PCA, Segmented-PCA (SPCA), and Truncated Singular Value Decomposition (TSVD). We perform this analysis on three distinct HSI datasets, namely the Indian Pines HSI, the Pavia University HSI, and the Kennedy Space Center HSI, using per-pixel Support Vector Machine (SVM) and Random Forest (RF) classification. The experimental results demonstrate the superiority of our proposed methods for all three datasets. The best-performing feature extraction methods when classification is performed using an SVM classifier are STSVD3 (89.03%), SSTSVD2 (95.55%), and STSVD3 (97.74%) for the Indian Pines, Pavia University, and Kennedy Space Center datasets, respectively. Similarly, for the RF classifier, the best-performing feature extraction methods are SSTSVD4 (88.98%), SSTSVD3 (96.04%), and SSTSVD4 (96.09%) for Indian Pines, Pavia University, and Kennedy Space Center datasets, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hyperspectral Image Processing (HSIP) is an essential technique in remote sensing. Currently, extensive research is carried out in hyperspectral image processing, involving many applications, including land cover classification, anomaly detection, plant classification, etc., Hyperspectral image processing is a powerful tool that enables us to capture and analyze an object's spectral information with greater accuracy and precision. Hyperspectral images are made up of hundreds of spectral bands, capturing an immense amount of information about the earth's surface. Accurately classifying and predicting land cover in these images is critical to understanding our planet's ecosystem and the impact of human activities on it. With the advent of deep learning techniques, the process of analyzing hyperspectral images has become more efficient and accurate than ever before. These techniques enable us to categorize land cover and predict Land Use/Land Cover (LULC) with exceptional precision, providing valuable insights into the state of our planet's environment. Image classification is difficult in hyperspectral image processing because of the large number of data samples but with a limited label. By selecting the appropriate bands from the image, we can get the finest classification results and predicted values. To our knowledge, the previous review papers concentrated only on the classification method. Here, we have presented an extensive review of various components of hyperspectral image processing, hyperspectral image analysis, pre-processing of an image, feature extraction and feature selection methods to select the number of features (bands), classification methods, and prediction methods. In addition, we also elaborated on the datasets used for classification, evaluation metrics used, various issues, and challenges. Thus, this review article will benefit new researchers in the hyperspectral image classification domain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Techniques that exploit spectral-spatial information have proven to be very effective in hyperspectral image classification. Joint sparse representation classification (JSRC) is one such technique which has been extensively used for this purpose. However, the use of a single fixed-sized window has limited its ability to incorporate spatial information. Several techniques such as multiscale superpixels based sparse representation classification (MSSRC), multiscale adaptive sparse representation classification (MASRC) and Discriminant Subdictionary Learning (DSDL) have tried to overcome this drawback by fusing information from different scales. However, their inability to simultaneously consider the correlated information at different scales and appropriate spatial neighbourhoods limits their performance. In order to better model contextual information, in this paper, we propose a modified max-tree and modified min-tree to represent the connected components of the image. Then, by exploiting these connected components, adaptive multiscale windows are defined. The potentiality of the proposed technique is validated by performing a comparative analysis with four state-of-the-art sparse representation methods using three real hyperspectral datasets. For a fixed training and test sets of University of Pavia and Indian Pines dataset, our proposed technique provides at least 3% and 2%, respectively higher classification results than the best state-of-the-art method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hyperspectral image (HSI) data has a wide range of valuable spectral information for numerous tasks. HSI data encounters challenges such as small training samples, scarcity, and redundant information. Researchers have introduced various research works to address these challenges. Convolution Neural Network (CNN) has gained significant success in the field of HSI classification. CNN's primary focus is to extract low-level features from HSI data, and it has a limited ability to detect long-range dependencies due to the confined filter size. In contrast, vision transformers exhibit great success in the HSI classification field due to the use of attention mechanisms to learn the long-range dependencies. As mentioned earlier, the primary issue with these models is that they require sufficient labeled training data. To address this challenge, we proposed a spectral-spatial feature extractor group attention transformer that consists of a multiscale feature extractor to extract low-level or shallow features. For high-level semantic feature extraction, we proposed a group attention mechanism. Our proposed model is evaluated using four publicly available HSI datasets, which are Indian Pines, Pavia University, Salinas, and the KSC dataset. Our proposed approach achieved the best classification results in terms of overall accuracy (OA), average accuracy (AA), and Kappa coefficient. As mentioned earlier, the proposed approach utilized only 5%, 1%, 1%, and 10% of the training samples from the publicly available four datasets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recursive neural networks and transformers have recently become dominant in hyperspectral (HS) image classification due to their ability to capture long-range dependencies in spectral sequences. Despite the success of these sequential architectures, mainstream deep learning methods primarily handle two-dimensional structured data. However, challenges such as the curse of dimensionality, spectral variability, and confounding factors in hyperspectral remote sensing images limit their effectiveness, especially in remote sensing applications. To address this issue, this paper proposes a novel land cover classification algorithm that integrates random forests with a spectral transformer network structure (RS-Net). Firstly, this paper presents a combination of the Gramian Angular Field (GASF) and Gramian Angular Difference Field (GADF) algorithms, which effectively maps the multidimensional time series constructed for each pixel onto two-dimensional image features, enabling precise extraction and recognition in the backend network algorithms and improving the classification accuracy of land cover types. Secondly, to capture the relationships between features at different scales, this paper proposes a SpectralFormer network architecture using the Context and Structure Encoding (CASE) module to effectively learn dependencies between channels. This architecture enhances important features and suppresses unimportant ones, thereby addressing the semantic gap and improving the recognition capability of land cover features. Finally, the final prediction results are determined by a voting mechanism from the Random Forest algorithm, which synthesizes predictions from multiple decision trees to enhance classification stability and accuracy. To better compare the performance of RS-Net, this paper conducted extensive experiments on three benchmark HS datasets obtained from satellite and airborne imagers, comparing various classic neural network models. Surprisingly, the RS-Net algorithm achieves high performance and efficiency, offering a new and effective tool for land cover classification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Substantial advancements have been achieved in hyperspectral image (HSI) classification through contemporary deep learning techniques. Nevertheless, the incorporation of an excessive number of irrelevant tokens in large-scale remote sensing data results in inefficient long-range modeling. To overcome this hurdle, this study introduces the Group-Sensitive Selective Perception Transformer (GSAT) framework, which builds upon the Vision Transformer (ViT) to enhance HSI classification outcomes. The innovation of the GSAT architecture is primarily evident in several key aspects. Firstly, the GSAT incorporates a Group-Sensitive Pixel Group Mapping (PGM) module, which organizes pixels into distinct groups. This allows the global self-attention mechanism to function within these groupings, effectively capturing local interdependencies within spectral channels. This grouping tactic not only boosts the model's spatial awareness but also lessens computational complexity, enhancing overall efficiency. Secondly, the GSAT addresses the detrimental effects of superfluous tokens on model efficacy by introducing the Sensitivity Selection Framework (SSF) module. This module selectively identifies the most pertinent tokens for classification purposes, thereby minimizing distractions from extraneous information and bolstering the model's representational strength. Furthermore, the SSF refines local representation through multi-scale feature selection, enabling the model to more effectively encapsulate feature data across various scales. Additionally, the GSAT architecture adeptly represents both global and local features of HSI data by merging global self-attention with local feature extraction. This integration strategy not only elevates classification precision but also enhances the model's versatility in navigating complex scenes, particularly in urban mapping scenarios where it significantly outclasses previous deep learning methods. The advent of the GSAT architecture not only rectifies the inefficiencies of traditional deep learning approaches in processing extensive remote sensing imagery but also markededly enhances the performance of HSI classification tasks through the deployment of group-sensitive and selective perception mechanisms. It presents a novel viewpoint within the domain of hyperspectral image classification and is poised to propel further advancements in the field. Empirical testing on six standard HSI datasets confirms the superior performance of the proposed GSAT method in HSI classification, especially within urban mapping contexts, where it exceeds the capabilities of prior deep learning techniques. In essence, the GSAT architecture markedly refines HSI classification by pioneering group-sensitive pixel group mapping and selective perception mechanisms, heralding a significant breakthrough in hyperspectral image processing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the field of hyperspectral image classification, deep learning technology, especially convolutional neural networks, has achieved remarkable progress. However, convolutional neural network models encounter challenges in hyperspectral image classification due to limitations in their receptive fields. Conversely, the global modeling capability of Transformers has garnered attention in hyperspectral image classification. Nevertheless, the high computational cost and inadequate local feature extraction hinder its widespread application. In this study, we propose a novel fusion model of convolutional neural networks and Transformers to enhance performance in hyperspectral image classification, namely the dual-branch multi-granularity convolutional cross-substitution Transformer (DMCCT). The proposed model adopts a dual-branch structure to separately extract spatial and spectral features, thereby mitigating mutual interference and information loss between spectral and spatial data during feature extraction. Moreover, a multi-granularity embedding module is introduced to facilitate multi-scale and multi-level local feature extraction for spatial and spectral information. In particular, the improved convolutional cross-substitution Transformer module effectively integrates convolution and Transformer, reducing the complexity of attention operations and enhancing the accuracy of hyperspectral image classification tasks. Subsequently, the proposed method is evaluated against existing approaches using three classical datasets, namely Pavia University, Kennedy Space Center, and Indian Pines. Experimental results demonstrate the efficacy of the proposed method, achieving significant classification results on these datasets with overall classification accuracies of 98.57%, 97.96%, and 96.59%, respectively. These results establish the superiority of the proposed method in the context of hyperspectral image classification under similar experimental conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Disjoint sampling is critical for rigorous and unbiased evaluation of state-of-the-art (SOTA) models e.g., Attention Graph and Vision Transformer. When training, validation, and test sets overlap or share data, it introduces a bias that inflates performance metrics and prevents accurate assessment of a model’s true ability to generalize to new examples. This paper presents an innovative disjoint sampling approach for training SOTA models for the Hyperspectral Image Classification (HSIC). By separating training, validation, and test data without overlap, the proposed method facilitates a fairer evaluation of how well a model can classify pixels it was not exposed to during training or validation. Experiments demonstrate the approach significantly improves a model’s generalization compared to alternatives that include training and validation data in test data (A trivial approach involves testing the model on the entire Hyperspectral dataset to generate the ground truth maps. This approach produces higher accuracy but ultimately results in low generalization performance). Disjoint sampling eliminates data leakage between sets and provides reliable metrics for benchmarking progress in HSIC. Disjoint sampling is critical for advancing SOTA models and their real-world application to large-scale land mapping with Hyperspectral sensors. Overall, with the disjoint test set, the performance of the deep models achieves 96.36% accuracy on Indian Pines data, 99.73% on Pavia University data, 98.29% on University of Houston data, 99.43% on Botswana data, and 99.88% on Salinas data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As an extremely efficient preprocessing tool, superpixels have become more and more popular in various computer vision tasks. Nevertheless, there are still several drawbacks in the application of hyperspectral image (HSl) processing. Firstly, it is difficult to directly apply superpixels because of the high dimension of HSl information. Secondly, existing superpixel algorithms cannot accurately classify the HSl objects due to multi-scale feature categorization. For the processing of high-dimensional problems, we use the principle of PCA to extract three principal components from numerous bands to form three-channel images. In this paper, a novel superpixel algorithm called Seed Extend by Entropy Density (SEED) is proposed to alleviate the seed point redundancy caused by the diversified content of HSl. It also focuses on breaking the dilemma of manually setting the number of superpixels to overcome the difficulty of classification imprecision caused by multi-scale targets. Next, a space–spectrum constraint model, termed Hyperspectral Image Classification via superpixels and manifold learning (SMALE), is designed, which integrates the proposed SEED to generate a dimensionality reduction framework. By making full use of spatial context information in the process of unsupervised dimension reduction, it could effectively improve the performance of HSl classification. Experimental results show that the proposed SEED could effectively promote the classification accuracy of HSI. Meanwhile, the integrated SMALE model outperforms existing algorithms on public datasets in terms of several quantitative metrics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deep learning methods like convolution neural networks (CNNs) and transformers are successfully applied in hyperspectral image (HSI) classification due to their ability to extract local contextual features and explore global dependencies, respectively. However, CNNs struggle in modeling long-term dependencies, and transformers may miss subtle spatial-spectral features. To address these challenges, this paper proposes an innovative hybrid HSI classification method aggregating hierarchical spatial-spectral features from a CNN and long pixel dependencies from a transformer. The proposed aggregation multi-hierarchical feature network (AMHFN) is designed to capture various hierarchical features and long dependencies from HSI, improving classification accuracy and efficiency. The proposed AMHFN consists of three key modules: (a) a Local-Pixel Embedding module (LPEM) for capturing prominent spatial-spectral features; (b) a Multi-Scale Convolutional Extraction (MSCE) module to capture multi-scale local spatial-spectral features and aggregate hierarchical local features; (c) a Multi-Scale Global Extraction (MSGE) module to explore multi-scale global dependencies and integrate multi-scale hierarchical global dependencies. Rigorous experiments on three public hyperspectral image (HSI) datasets demonstrated the superior performance of the proposed AMHFN method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deep learning-based hyperspectral remote sensing image classification methods are currently a research hotspot. However, they suffer from issues such as large feature network parameter size, complex calculations, and the need for a large number of training data to achieve good classification results. Moreover, hyperspectral remote sensing images face challenges such as difficulty in obtaining the ground truth of land cover, limited availability of effective datasets for training, and endmember spectral variability, making it difficult for existing algorithm models to be widely adopted. To address these issues, this paper proposes a multi-branch classification model with multi-dimensional feature fusion, constructing lightweight deep network models for one-dimensional spectral, two-dimensional spatial, and three-dimensional depth feature extraction, respectively. This enriches feature information while reducing the parameters of each branch's deep model, effectively improving the land cover classification accuracy using hyperspectral remote sensing images under limited training sample conditions. Experimental verification with open-source hyperspectral remote sensing datasets shows that the proposed classification method can obtain over 90% classification accuracy when the training set account for only 5% of the total dataset, which is significantly better than current mainstream deep network classification models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present an innovative hyperspectral image (HSI) classification method addressing challenges posed by closely spaced wavelength bands. Our approach combines 3D-2D convolutional neural networks (CNNs) with multi-branch feature fusion for improved spectral-spatial feature extraction. Using segmented principal component analysis (Seg-PCA), we reduce HSIs' spectral dimensions into global and local intrinsic characteristics. The integration of 3D and 2D CNNs captures joint spectral-spatial features, while a multi-branch network extracts and merges diverse local features along the spectral dimension. Our method outperforms existing approaches, achieving remarkable accuracy of 99.27%, 100%, and 99.99% on Indian Pines, Salinas Scene, and University of Pavia datasets, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hyperspectral images have the characteristics of high spectral resolution and low spatial resolution, which will make the extracted features insufficient and lack detailed information about ground objects, thus affecting the accuracy of classification. The numerous spectral bands of hyperspectral images contain rich spectral features but also bring issues of noise and redundancy. To improve the spatial resolution and fully extract spatial and spectral features, this article proposes an improved feature enhancement and extraction model (IFEE) using spatial feature enhancement and attention-guided bidirectional sequential spectral feature extraction for hyperspectral image classification. The adaptive guided filtering is introduced to highlight details and edge features in hyperspectral images. Then, an image enhancement module composed of two-dimensional convolutional neural networks is used to improve the resolution of the image after adaptive guidance filtering and provide a high-resolution image with key features emphasized for the subsequent feature extraction module. The proposed spectral attention mechanism helps to extract more representative spectral features, emphasizing useful information while suppressing the interference of noise. Experimental results show that our method outperforms other comparative methods even with very few training samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Along with the high spectral rich information it provides, one of the difficulties in processing a hyperspectral image is the need for expert knowledge and high-spec hardware to process very high-dimensional data. 3D convolutional neural network (3D CNN), which uses spectral and spatial features together, enables a powerful solution for HSI classification. This study proposes an efficient dual-stream 3D CNN for accurate HSI classification. The proposed method offers effective classification using spectral-spatial features without relying on pre-processing or post-processing. A comparative study of how CNN classification performance is affected by hyperspectral band selection based on deep reinforcement learning (DRL) is presented. Using the most relevant bands in the hyperspectral image is decisive in deep CNN networks without losing information and accuracy. The proposed method was compared with 3D CNN, 3D + 1D CNN, Multiscale 3D deep convolutional neural network (M3D-DCNN), and InceptionV3 algorithms using Indian Pines (IP), Salinas, Pavia Center (PaviaC), Houston 2013 and QUH-Tangdaowan datasets. It achieved 92.43 % overall accuracy (OA) in IP, 95.06 % OA in Salinas dataset, 99.00 % OA in PaviaC dataset, 91.25 % OA in Houston 2013 and 94.87 % OA in QUH-Tangdaowan. Codes are released at: https://github.com/lapistlazuli/DS-3DCNN. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Hyperspectral image (HSI) data has a wide range of valuable spectral information for numerous tasks. HSI data encounters challenges such as small training samples, scarcity, and redundant information. Researchers have introduced various research works to address these challenges. Convolution Neural Network (CNN) has gained significant success in the field of HSI classification. CNN’s primary focus is to extract low-level features from HSI data, and it has a limited ability to detect long-range dependencies due to the confined filter size. In contrast, vision transformers exhibit great success in the HSI classification field due to the use of attention mechanisms to learn the long-range dependencies. As mentioned earlier, the primary issue with these models is that they require sufficient labeled training data. To address this challenge, we proposed a spectral-spatial feature extractor group attention transformer that consists of a multiscale feature extractor to extract low-level or shallow features. For high-level semantic feature extraction, we proposed a group attention mechanism. Our proposed model is evaluated using four publicly available HSI datasets, which are Indian Pines, Pavia University, Salinas, and the KSC dataset. Our proposed approach achieved the best classification results in terms of overall accuracy (OA), average accuracy (AA), and Kappa coefficient. As mentioned earlier, the proposed approach utilized only 5%, 1%, 1%, and 10% of the training samples from the publicly available four datasets.

Abstract This paper introduces a new latent variable probabilistic framework for representing spectral data of high spatial and spectral dimensionality, such as hyperspectral images. We use a generative Bayesian model to represent the image formation process and provide interpretable and efficient inference and learning methods. Surprisingly, our approach can be implemented with simple tools and does not require extensive training data, detailed pixel-by-pixel labeling, or significant computational resources. Numerous experiments with simulated data and real benchmark scenarios show encouraging image classification performance. These results validate the unique ability of our framework to discriminate complex hyperspectral images, irrespective of the presence of highly discriminative spectral signatures.

Abstract Ancient murals have suffered from continuous damage over time, and especially paint loss disease. Therefore, disease labeling, as the basis for ancient mural restoration, plays an important role in the protection of cultural relics. The predominant method of disease labeling is currently manual labeling, which is highly dependent on expert experience, time consuming, inefficient and results in inconsistent accuracy of the marking effect. In this paper, we propose a labeling framework for paint loss disease of ancient murals based on hyperspectral image classification and segmentation. The proposed framework involves first the extraction of features from the hyperspectral image, and then image segmentation is performed based on the spatial features to obtain more accurate region boundaries. Then, the hyperspectral image’s regions are classified based on their spatial-spectral characteristics, and the candidate areas of paint loss disease are obtained. Finally, by leveraging the true color image segmentation results, the proposed disease labeling strategy combines the results of classification and segmentation to propose the final paint loss disease labeling areas. The experimental results show that the proposed method can not only combine the hyperspectral space and spectral information effectively to obtain accurate labeling of paint loss disease, but can also mark the paint loss disease not easily observed using ordinary digital cameras. Compared with the state-of-the-art methods, the proposed framework could be promising for accurate and effective paint loss disease labeling for ancient murals.

Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) and graph convolutional networks (GCNs) have made considerable advances in hyperspectral image (HSI) classification. However, most CNN-based methods learn features at a single-scale in HSI data, which may be insufficient for multi-scale feature extraction in complex data scenes. To learn the relations among samples in non-grid data, GCNs are employed and combined with CNNs to process HSIs. Nevertheless, most methods based on CNN-GCN may overlook the integration of pixel-wise spectral signatures. In this paper, we propose a pyramid cascaded convolutional neural network with graph convolution (PCCGC) for hyperspectral image classification. It mainly comprises CNN-based and GCN-based subnetworks. Specifically, in the CNN-based subnetwork, a pyramid residual cascaded module and a pyramid convolution cascaded module are employed to extract multiscale spectral and spatial features separately, which can enhance the robustness of the proposed model. Furthermore, an adaptive feature-weighted fusion strategy is utilized to adaptively fuse multiscale spectral and spatial features. In the GCN-based subnetwork, a band selection network (BSNet) is used to learn the spectral signatures in the HSI using nonlinear inter-band dependencies. Then, the spectral-enhanced GCN module is utilized to extract and enhance the important features in the spectral matrix. Subsequently, a mutual-cooperative attention mechanism is constructed to align the spectral signatures between BSNet-based matrix with the spectral-enhanced GCN-based matrix for spectral signature integration. Abundant experiments performed on four widely used real HSI datasets show that our model achieves higher classification accuracy than the fourteen other comparative methods, which shows the superior classification performance of PCCGC over the state-of-the-art methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, graph convolutional neural networks (GCNs) and convolutional neural networks (CNNs) have made significant strides in hyperspectral image (HSI) classification. However, existing models often encounter information redundancy and feature mismatch during feature fusion, and they struggle with small-scale refined features. To address these issues, we propose DCG-Net, an innovative classification network integrating CNN and GCN architectures. Our approach includes the development of a double-branch expanding network (E-Net) to enhance spectral features and efficiently extract high-level features. Additionally, we incorporate a GCN with an attention mechanism to facilitate the integration of multi-space scale superpixel-level and pixel-level features. To further improve feature fusion, we introduce a feature aggregation module (FAM) that adaptively learns channel features, enhancing classification robustness and accuracy. Comprehensive experiments on three widely used datasets show that DCG-Net achieves superior classification results compared to other state-of-the-art methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graph neural networks (GNNs) have recently garnered significant attention due to their exceptional performance across various applications, including hyperspectral (HS) image classification. However, most existing GNN-based models for HS image classification are limited depth models and often suffer from performance degradation as model depth increases. This study introduces HyperGCN, an exclusive GNN-based model designed with multiple graph convolutional layers to exploit the rich spectral information inherent in HS images, thereby enhancing classification performance. To address performance degradation, HyperGCN incorporates techniques resistant to oversmoothing into its architecture. Additionally, multiple-side exit branches are integrated into the intermediate layers of HyperGCN, enabling dynamic management of the complexity of HS images. Less complex HS images are processed by fewer layers, exiting early via attached branches, while more complex images traverse multiple layers until reaching the final output layer. Extensive experiments on four benchmark HS datasets (Indian Pines, Pavia University, Salinas, and Botswana) demonstrate HyperGCN's superior performance over basic GNN-based models. Notably, HyperGCN outperforms or performs comparably to the CNN-GNN combined model in classifying HS images. Furthermore, the superior performance of multi-exit HyperGCN over its single-exit counterpart emphasizes the effectiveness of incorporating side exit branches in GNN-based HS image classification. Compared to state-of-the-art models, multi-exit HyperGCN demonstrates competitive performance, highlighting its effectiveness in handling complex spectral information in HS images while maintaining an acceptable balance between accuracy and computational efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Domain adaptation (DA) offers an effective way to align feature distributions of the source domain (SD) and the target domain (TD) without requiring any target label samples. As a method of DA, representation learning effectively realizes the alignment of feature distributions in different domains by transferring domain knowledge. However, existing representation learning methods often focus on unilateral representation transfer, which potentially results in transfer bias. Additionally, most methods ignore the connection between domain alignment and discrimination during the DA process, which easily causes negative transfer. This paper proposes a dynamic weighted dual-driven domain adaptation (DW-D $^3$ 3 A) model that effectively addresses the aforementioned issues through bilateral feature transfer between domains and a dynamic weighted scheme. Technically, we first propose a dual-driven domain adaptation (D $^3$ 3 A) model, which employs symmetrical structures to facilitate the knowledge transfer of bilateral representations between source and target domain samples, learning the subspaces of two domains and reducing distribution discrepancies between subspaces via joint distribution-driven alignment. This process mitigates transfer bias and goes beyond previous unilateral transfer methods. Then, to alleviate strong constraints on projecting SD and TD into the same subspace in existing approaches, we apply a relaxed subspace constraint to bring the projections of SD and TD closer. Furthermore, data reconstruction is incorporated to preserve discriminant information from the original data. Lastly, we expand (D $^3$ 3 A) to DW-D $^3$ 3 A using a dynamic weighted scheme, which adjusts the weights assigned to domain alignment and discrimination based on their significance to inhibit negative transfer. Extensive experimentation on three datasets indicates that DW-D $^3$ 3 A outperforms seven other DA methods, showing its superior performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Semi-supervised graph convolutional networks (SSGCNs) have been proven to be effective in hyperspectral image classification (HSIC). However, limited training data and spectral uncertainty restrict the classification performance, and the computational demands of a graph convolution network (GCN) present challenges for real-time applications. To overcome these issues, a dual-branch fusion of a GCN and convolutional neural network (DFGCN) is proposed for HSIC tasks. The GCN branch uses an adaptive multi-scale superpixel segmentation method to build fusion adjacency matrices at various scales, which improves the graph convolution efficiency and node representations. Additionally, a spectral feature enhancement module (SFEM) enhances the transmission of crucial channel information between the two graph convolutions. Meanwhile, the CNN branch uses a convolutional network with an attention mechanism to focus on detailed features of local areas. By combining the multi-scale superpixel features from the GCN branch and the local pixel features from the CNN branch, this method leverages complementary features to fully learn rich spatial–spectral information. Our experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method outperforms existing advanced approaches in terms of classification efficiency and accuracy across three benchmark data sets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accurate and timely acquisition of the spatial distribution of mangrove species is essential for conserving ecological diversity. Hyperspectral imaging sensors are recognized as effective tools for monitoring mangroves. However, the spatial complexity of mangrove forests and the spectral redundancy of hyperspectral images pose challenges to fine classification. Moreover, finely classifying mangrove species using only spectral information is difficult due to spectral similarities among species. To address these issues, this study proposes an object-oriented multi-feature combination method for fine classification. Specifically, hyperspectral images were segmented using multi-scale segmentation techniques to obtain different species of objects. Then, a variety of features were extracted, including spectral, vegetation indices, fractional order differential, texture, and geometric features, and a genetic algorithm was used for feature selection. Additionally, ten feature combination schemes were designed to compare the effects on mangrove species classification. In terms of classification algorithms, the classification capabilities of four machine learning classifiers were evaluated, including K-nearest neighbor (KNN), support vector machines (SVM), random forests (RF), and artificial neural networks (ANN) methods. The results indicate that SVM based on texture features achieved the highest classification accuracy among single-feature variables, with an overall accuracy of 97.04%. Among feature combination variables, ANN based on raw spectra, first-order differential spectra, texture features, vegetation indices, and geometric features achieved the highest classification accuracy, with an overall accuracy of 98.03%. Texture features and fractional order differentiation are identified as important variables, while vegetation index and geometric features can further improve classification accuracy. Object-based classification, compared to pixel-based classification, can avoid the salt-and-pepper phenomenon and significantly enhance the accuracy and efficiency of mangrove species classification. Overall, the multi-feature combination method and object-based classification strategy proposed in this study provide strong technical support for the fine classification of mangrove species and are expected to play an important role in mangrove restoration and management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the intricate terrain and restricted resources, hyperspectral image (HSI) datasets captured in real-world scenarios typically contain noisy labels, which may seriously affect the classification results. To address this issue, we work on a universal method that rectifies the labels first and then trains the classifier with corrected labels. In this study, we relax the common assumption that all training data are potentially corrupted and instead posit the presence of a small set of reliable data points within the training set. Under this framework, we propose a novel label-correction method named adaptive selective loss propagation algorithm (ASLPA). Firstly, the spectral–spatial information is extracted from the hyperspectral image and used to construct the inter-pixel transition probability matrix. Secondly, we construct the trusted set with the known clean data and estimate the proportion of accurate labels within the untrusted set. Then, we enlarge the trusted set according to the estimated proportion and identify an adaptive number of samples with lower loss values from the untrusted set to supplement the trusted set. Finally, we conduct label propagation based on the enlarged trusted set. This approach takes full advantage of label information from the trusted and untrusted sets, and moreover the exploitation on the untrusted set can adjust adaptively according to the estimated noise level. Experimental results on three widely used HSI datasets show that our proposed ASLPA method performs better than the state-of-the-art label-cleaning methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, transformer has gradually attracted interest for its excellence in modeling the long-range dependencies of spatial-spectral features in HSI. However, transformer has the problem of the quadratic computational complexity due to the self-attention mechanism, which is heavier than other models and thus has limited adoption in HSI processing. Fortunately, the recently emerging state space model-based Mamba shows great computational efficiency while achieving the modeling power of transformers. Therefore, in this paper, we first proposed spectral-spatial Mamba (SS-Mamba) for HSI classification. Specifically, SS-Mamba mainly includes a spectral-spatial token generation module and several stacked spectral-spatial Mamba blocks. Firstly, the token generation module converts any given HSI cube to spatial and spectral tokens as sequences. And then these tokens are sent to stacked spectral-spatial mamba blocks (SS-MB). Each SS-MB includes two basic mamba blocks and a spectral-spatial feature enhancement module. The spatial and spectral tokens are processed separately by the two basic mamba blocks, correspondingly. Moreover, the feature enhancement module modulates spatial and spectral tokens using HSI sample's center region information. Therefore, the spectral and spatial tokens cooperate with each other and achieve information fusion within each block. The experimental results conducted on widely used HSI datasets reveal that the proposed SS-Mamba requires less processing time compared with transformer. The Mamba-based method thus opens a new window for HSI classification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of cross-scene hyperspectral image (HSI) classification is to develop models capable of adapting to the "domain gap" that exists between different scenes, enabling accurate object classification in previously unseen scenes. Many researchers have devised various domain adaptation techniques aimed at aligning the statistical or spectral distributions of data from diverse scenes. However, many previous studies have overlooked the potential benefits of incorporating spatial topological information from hyperspectral imagery, which could provide a more accurate representation of the inherent data structure in HSIs. To overcome this issue, we introduce an innovative approach for cross-scene HSI classification, founded on hierarchical prototype graph alignment. Specifically, this method leverages prototypes as representative embedded representations of all samples within the same class. By employing multiple graph convolution and pooling operations, multi-scale domain alignment is attained. Beyond statistical distribution alignment, we integrate graph matching to effectively reconcile semantic and topological information. Experimental results on several datasets achieve significantly improved accuracy and generalization capabilities for cross-scene HSI classification tasks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the development of hyperspectral sensors, the availability of hyperspectral images (HSIs) has increased significantly, prompting advancements in deep learning-based hyperspectral image classification (HSIC) methods. Recently, graph convolutional networks (GCNs) have been proposed to process graph-structured data in non-Euclidean domains, and have been used for HSIC. The superpixel segmentation should be implemented first in the GCN-based methods, however, it is difficult to manually select the optimal superpixel segmentation sizes to obtain the useful information for classification. To solve this problem, we constructed a HSIC model based on a multiscale feature search-based graph convolutional network (MFSGCN) in this study. Firstly, pixel-level features of HSIs are extracted sequentially using 3D asymmetric decomposition convolution and 2D convolution. Then, superpixel-level features at different scales are extracted using multilayer GCNs. Finally, the neural architecture search (NAS) method is used to automatically assign different weights to different scales of superpixel features. Thus, a more discriminative feature map is obtained for classification. Compared with other GCN-based networks, the MFSGCN network can automatically capture features and obtain higher classification accuracy. The proposed MFSGCN model was implemented on three commonly used HSI datasets and compared to some state-of-the-art methods. The results confirm that MFSGCN effectively improves accuracy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, deep learning networks have been utilized in computer vision applications to validate the depth of the model and also significantly improve data mining. However, it improved the performance of the hyperspectral image classification process in different structural models. However, due to the presence of uncleared data and unclear images, the efficiency of the model is diminished. Also, there is a possibility of generating overfitting issues due to slow processing and this reduces the classification accuracy. Therefore, a novel Adaptive Triplet Network (ATN) based Hyperspectral Image Classification method is proposed to overcome the above-mentioned issues while classifying the features. This method is generated by integrating the Triplet network and Chaotic Quasi Oppositional Farmland Fertility Algorithm (CQFFA) that determines an efficient hyperspectral image classification process with few-shot learning. Mostly the CNN classifier is utilized for classification and the determination of triplet network classifies multiple data but, in such situations, the classification is not accurate due to overfitting of images. Hence the CQFFA optimization method is determined to solve the overfitting issue and extract multiple features simultaneously for better classification. The efficiency of the proposed method is evaluated by USGS and ICVL-HSI datasets as well as the metrics namely accuracy, precision, recall, F1-score, specificity, ROC, and time complexity. The experimentation result revealed that the proposed method has a better hyperspectral image classification accuracy of 98.03% than state-of-the-art methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hyperspectral image classification is widely applied in several fields. Since existing datasets focus on a single scene, current deep learning-based methods typically divide patches randomly on the same image as training and testing samples. This can result in similar spatial distributions of samples, which may incline the network to learn specific spatial distributions in pursuit of falsely high accuracy. In addition, the large variation between single-scene datasets has led to research in cross-scene hyperspectral classification, focusing on domain adaptation and domain generalization while neglecting the exploration of the generalizability of models to specific variables. This paper proposes two approaches to address these issues. The first approach is to train the model on the original image and then test it on the rotated dataset to simulate cross-scene evaluation. The second approach is constructing a new cross-scene dataset for spatial distribution variations, named GF14-C17&C16, to avoid the problems arising from the existing single-scene datasets. The image conditions in this dataset are basically the same, and only the land cover distribution is different. In response to the spatial distribution variations, this paper proposes a constrained spectral attention mechanism and a constrained spatial attention mechanism to limit the fitting of the model to specific feature distributions. Based on these, this paper also constructs a constrained spectral–spatial attention residual network (CSSARN). Extensive experimental results on two public hyperspectral datasets and the GF14-C17&C16 dataset have demonstrated that CSSARN is more effective than other methods in extracting cross-scene spectral and spatial features. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of South-Central Minzu University (Natural Science Edition) is the property of Journal of South-Central Minzu University (Natural Science Edition) Editorial Office and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Convolutional neural network (CNN)-based and Transformer-based methods for hyperspectral image (HSI) classification have rapidly advanced due to their unique characterization capabilities. However, the fixed kernel sizes in convolutional layers limit the comprehensive utilization of multi-scale features in HSI land cover analysis, while the Transformer's multi-head self-attention (MHSA) mechanism faces challenges in effectively encoding feature information across various dimensions. To tackle this issue, this article introduces an HSI classification method, based on multi-scale convolutional features and multi-attention mechanisms (i.e., MSCF-MAM). Firstly, the model employs a multi-scale convolutional module to capture features across different scales in HSIs. Secondly, to enhance the integration of local and global channel features and establish long-range dependencies, a feature enhancement module based on pyramid squeeze attention (PSA) is employed. Lastly, the model leverages a classical Transformer Encoder (TE) and linear layers to encode and classify the transformed spatial–spectral features. The proposed method is evaluated on three publicly available datasets—Salina Valley (SV), WHU-Hi-HanChuan (HC), and WHU-Hi-HongHu (HH). Extensive experimental results have demonstrated that the MSCF-MAM method outperforms several representative methods in terms of classification performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hyperspectral image (HSI) contains abundant spectral-spatial information, which is widely used in many fields. HSI classification is a fundamental and important task, which aims to assign each pixel a specific class label. However, the high spectral variability and the limited labeled samples create challenges for HSI classification, which results in poor data separability and makes it difficult to learn highly discriminative semantic features. In order to address the above problems, a novel spectral-spatial center-aware bottleneck Transformer is proposed. First, the highly relevant spectral information and the complementary spatial information at different scales are integrated to reduce the impact caused by the high spectral variability and enhance the HSI's separability. Then, the feature correction layer is designed to model the cross-channel interactions, thereby promoting the effective cooperation between different channels to enhance overall feature representation capability. Finally, the center-aware self-attention is constructed to model the spatial long-range interactions and focus more on the neighboring pixels that have relatively consistent spectral-spatial properties with the central pixel. Experimental results on the common datasets show that compared with the state-of-the-art classification methods, S2CABT has the better classification performance and robustness, which achieves a good compromise between the complexity and the performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although extensive research shows that CNNs achieve good classification results in HSI classification, they still struggle to effectively extract spectral sequence information from HSIs. Additionally, the high-dimensional features of HSIs, the limited number of labeled samples, and the common sample imbalance significantly restrict classification performance improvement. To address these issues, this article proposes a double-branch multi-scale dual-attention (DBMSDA) network that fully extracts spectral and spatial information from HSIs and fuses them for classification. The designed multi-scale spectral residual self-attention (MSeRA), as a fundamental component of dense connections, can fully extract high-dimensional and intricate spectral information from HSIs, even with limited labeled samples and imbalanced distributions. Additionally, this article adopts a dataset partitioning strategy to prevent information leakage. Finally, this article introduces a hyperspectral geological lithology dataset to evaluate the accuracy and applicability of deep learning methods in geology. Experimental results on the geological lithology hyperspectral dataset and three other public datasets demonstrate that the DBMSDA method exhibits superior classification performance and robust generalization ability compared to existing methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ancient murals have suffered from continuous damage over time, and especially paint loss disease. Therefore, disease labeling, as the basis for ancient mural restoration, plays an important role in the protection of cultural relics. The predominant method of disease labeling is currently manual labeling, which is highly dependent on expert experience, time consuming, inefficient and results in inconsistent accuracy of the marking effect. In this paper, we propose a labeling framework for paint loss disease of ancient murals based on hyperspectral image classification and segmentation. The proposed framework involves first the extraction of features from the hyperspectral image, and then image segmentation is performed based on the spatial features to obtain more accurate region boundaries. Then, the hyperspectral image's regions are classified based on their spatial-spectral characteristics, and the candidate areas of paint loss disease are obtained. Finally, by leveraging the true color image segmentation results, the proposed disease labeling strategy combines the results of classification and segmentation to propose the final paint loss disease labeling areas. The experimental results show that the proposed method can not only combine the hyperspectral space and spectral information effectively to obtain accurate labeling of paint loss disease, but can also mark the paint loss disease not easily observed using ordinary digital cameras. Compared with the state-of-the-art methods, the proposed framework could be promising for accurate and effective paint loss disease labeling for ancient murals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Classification of the hyperspectral images (HSIs) is one of the most challenging tasks hyperspectral remote sensing. Various Machine Learning classification algorithms have been implemented to HSI classification. In recent years, several Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) architectures were developed for HSI classification. The aim of this study is to test the performance of CNN, and well-known Support Vector Machine and Random Forest algorithms using the HyRANK Loukia, Houston 2013, and Salinas Scene datasets. The findings indicate that the Modified HybridSN CNN outperformed other algorithms across all datasets, as demonstrated by various performance evaluation metrics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Labeled hyperspectral image (HSI) information is commonly difficult to acquire, so the lack of valid labeled data becomes a major puzzle for HSI classification. Semi-supervised methods can efficiently exploit unlabeled and labeled data for classification, which is highly valuable. Graph-based semi-supervised methods only focus on HSI local or global data and cannot fully utilize spatial–spectral information; this significantly limits the performance of classification models. To solve this problem, we propose an adaptive global–local feature fusion (AGLFF) method. First, the global high-order and local graphs are adaptively fused, and their weight parameters are automatically learned in an adaptive manner to extract the consistency features. The class probability structure is then used to express the relationship between the fused feature and the categories and to calculate their corresponding pseudo-labels. Finally, the fused features are imported into the broad learning system as weights, and the broad expansion of the fused features is performed with the weighted broad network to calculate the model output weights. Experimental results from three datasets demonstrate that AGLFF outperforms other methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, the use of deep neural network in effective network feature extraction and the design of efficient and high-precision hyperspectral image classification algorithms has gradually become a research hotspot for scholars. However, due to the difficulty of obtaining hyperspectral images and the high cost of annotation, the training samples are very limited. In order to cope with the small sample problem, researchers often deepen the network model and use the attention mechanism to extract features; however, as the network model continues to deepen, the gradient disappears, the feature extraction ability is insufficient, and the computational cost is high. Therefore, how to make full use of the spectral and spatial information in limited samples has gradually become a difficult problem. In order to cope with such problems, this paper proposes two-branch multiscale spatial–spectral feature aggregation with a self-attention mechanism for a hyperspectral image classification model (FHDANet); the model constructs a dense two-branch pyramid structure, which can achieve the high efficiency extraction of joint spatial–spectral feature information and spectral feature information, reduce feature loss to a large extent, and strengthen the model's ability to extract contextual information. A channel–space attention module, ECBAM, is proposed, which greatly improves the extraction ability of the model for salient features, and a spatial information extraction module based on the deep feature fusion strategy HLDFF is proposed, which fully strengthens feature reusability and mitigates the feature loss problem brought about by the deepening of the model. Compared with five hyperspectral image classification algorithms, SVM, SSRN, A2S2K-ResNet, HyBridSN, SSDGL, RSSGL and LANet, this method significantly improves the classification performance on four representative datasets. Experiments have demonstrated that FHDANet can better extract and utilise the spatial and spectral information in hyperspectral images with excellent classification performance under small sample conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transformer has achieved outstanding performance in hyperspectral image classification (HSIC) thanks to its effectiveness in modelling the long‐term dependence relation. However, most of the existing algorithms combine convolution with transformer and use convolution for spatial–spectral information fusion, which cannot adequately learn the spatial–spectral fusion features of hyperspectral images (HSIs). To mine the rich spatial and spectral features, a two‐branch global spatial–spectral fusion transformer (GSSFT) model is designed in this paper, in which a spatial–spectral information fusion (SSIF) module is designed to fuse features of spectral and spatial branches. For the spatial branch, the local multiscale swin transformer (LMST) module is devised to obtain local–global spatial information of the samples and the background filtering (BF) module is constructed to weaken the weights of irrelevant pixels. The information learned from the spatial branch and the spectral branch is effectively fused to get final classification results. Extensive experiments are conducted on three HSI datasets, and the results of experiments show that the designed GSSFT method performs well compared with the traditional convolutional neural network and transformer‐based methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Chinese Journal of Liquid Crystal & Displays is the property of Chinese Journal of Liquid Crystal & Displays and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Hyperspectral (HS) image classification plays a crucial role in numerous areas including remote sensing (RS), agriculture, and the monitoring of the environment. Optimal band selection in HS images is crucial for improving the efficiency and accuracy of image classification. This process involves selecting the most informative spectral bands, which leads to a reduction in data volume. Focusing on these key bands also enhances the accuracy of classification algorithms, as redundant or irrelevant bands, which can introduce noise and lower model performance, are excluded. In this paper, we propose an approach for HS image classification using deep Q learning (DQL) and a novel multi-objective binary grey wolf optimizer (MOBGWO). We investigate the MOBGWO for optimal band selection to further enhance the accuracy of HS image classification. In the suggested MOBGWO, a new sigmoid function is introduced as a transfer function to modify the wolves' position. The primary objective of this classification is to reduce the number of bands while maximizing classification accuracy. To evaluate the effectiveness of our approach, we conducted experiments on publicly available HS image datasets, including Pavia University, Washington Mall, and Indian Pines datasets. We compared the performance of our proposed method with several state-of-the-art deep learning (DL) and machine learning (ML) algorithms, including long short-term memory (LSTM), deep neural network (DNN), recurrent neural network (RNN), support vector machine (SVM), and random forest (RF). Our experimental results demonstrate that the Hybrid MOBGWO-DQL significantly improves classification accuracy compared to traditional optimization and DL techniques. MOBGWO-DQL shows greater accuracy in classifying most categories in both datasets used. For the Indian Pine dataset, the MOBGWODQL architecture achieved a kappa coefficient (KC) of 97.68% and an overall accuracy (OA) of 94.32%. This was accompanied by the lowest root mean square error (RMSE) of 0.94, indicating very precise predictions with minimal error. In the case of the Pavia University dataset, the MOBGWO-DQL model demonstrated outstanding performance with the highest KC of 98.72% and an impressive OA of 96.01%. It also recorded the lowest RMSE at 0.63, reinforcing its accuracy in predictions. The results clearly demonstrate that the proposed MOBGWODQL architecture not only reaches a highly accurate model more quickly but also maintains superior performance throughout the training process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The utilization of Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) in hyperspectral image (HSI) classification has become commonplace. However, traditional CNNs cannot fully extract the features of HSI and are prone to gradient vanishing when the network layer is deepened. We suggest a 2D–3D hybrid convolution and pre-activated residual networks-based HSI classification (HSIC) approach to tackle these problems. Firstly, the joint spatial–spectral features of HSI are extracted by a two-layer 3D convolution. Secondly, combining the advantages of 2D and 3D convolution to construct a spatial–spectral feature extraction module based on pre-activated residual networks, which can accelerate the convergence speed of the model while enhancing the capability of advanced spatial semantic feature extraction of HSI. Then, multiple residual modules are connected to take advantage of the different forms of features extracted by each convolutional layer, while multi-feature fusion is performed between blocks to achieve feature complementarity. Finally, a long-distance residual connection is introduced to fuse the shallow and deep features effectively, which further strengthens the expression ability of features. The results of the experiments conducted on three HSIs show that the overall classification accuracy of the model reaches 99.56%, 99.45% and 99.43%, respectively, when 10%, 1% and 1% of samples are randomly selected for training in each ground object class. Compared with other related CNN-based HSI classification models, our model can obtain higher classification accuracy. Consequently, the suggested method is capable of achieving feature reuse and obtaining deep high-level spatial–spectral features with superior discriminative and robustness, and its classification performance is superior to that of existing state-of-the-art methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new hyperspectral image classification algorithm based on deep learning is constructed to solve the problems of redundant band information, neglect of local details, and insufficient spatial and spectral feature extraction in hyperspectral image classification tasks. The model uses the improved 3D inception structure as a multi-scale feature extractor to enhance the attention to local information, and 3D convolution mixed with 2D convolution (3D-2D) is used as the main feature extractor to improve the conversion and fusion of spatial and spectral features. In addition, a compression-and-excitation network is used as the connecting mechanism for feature transfer to reduce the redundancy of band information and ultimately to realize the effective classification of hyperspectral images. In this paper, the proposed method was validated on three public datasets (Pavia University, Salinas, and Indian Pines), and the results show that the classification accuracies of the proposed method were 99.75, 99.99, and 98.77%, respectively, which are better than the mainstream methods. These results are of great significance for the performance of hyperspectral image classification tasks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effective management of corn straw and stubble is critical in conservation tillage, as it impacts soil health and productivity. However, accurate classification of different types of straw cover has been hindered by their similar spectral and spatial characteristics and the low spatial resolution of hyperspectral satellite imagery. Moreover, traditional convolution neural network (CNN)-based methods, which rely on first-order statistics for feature extraction, often struggle to extract distinguishable features of highly similar objects effectively, thereby reducing classification accuracy. In this study, a second-order statistical-feature extraction algorithm based on CNN that uses fused multispectral and hyperspectral data was tested for its ability to classify types of straw cover. In the first step, coupled non-negative matrix factorization (CNMF) was used to fuse hyperspectral and multispectral images effectively, thereby enhancing the spatial resolution of the hyperspectral data. In this study, we integrated pointwise convolution (PWC), depthwise convolution (DWC), and a distance covariance matrix (DCM) to form a mixed convolution and DCM (MCDCM) network; we used this to extract and integrate deep spectral–spatial features of the hyperspectral images. Our experimental results show that the MCDCM network significantly improved classification accuracy compared to traditional methods, with accuracy rates for the different straw-cover types exceeding 90% and overall accuracy reaching 98.26%. The fused image also exhibited better preservation of feature edges and contours. The accurate identification of corn-straw-cover types achieved with the proposed MCDCM method is a major step in optimizing conservation-farming practices, improving soil fertility and farm productivity, and supporting sustainable ecological development.

Deep learning has significantly advanced hyperspectral image (HSI) classification, primarily due to its robust nonlinear feature extraction capabilities. The vision transformer has achieved notable performance but is limited by the quadratic computational burden of its self-attention mechanism. Recently, a network based on state space model named Mamba, has attracted considerable attention for its linear complexity and commendable performance. Nevertheless, Mamba was originally designed for one-dimensional causal sequence modeling, and its effectiveness in inherent non-causal HSI classification remains to be fully validated. To address this issue, we propose a novel Local Enhanced Mamba (LE-Mamba) network for hyperspectral image classification, which mainly comprises a Local Enhanced Spatial SSM (LES-S6), a Central Region Spectral SSM (CRS-S6), and a Multi-Scale Convolutional Gated Unit (MSCGU). The LES-S6 improves non-causal local feature extraction by incorporating a multi-directional local spatial scanning mechanism. Additionally, the CRS-S6 employs a bidirectional scanning mechanism in the spectral dimension to capture fine spectral details and integrate them with spatial information. The MSCGU utilizes a convolutional gating mechanism to aggregate features from diverse scanning routes and extract high-level semantic information. The overall accuracies of LE-Mamba on Indian Pines, WHU-Hi-HanChuan, WHU-Hi-LongKou, and Pavia University datasets are 99.16 %, 98.16 %, 99.57 %, and 99.63 %, respectively. Extensive experimental results on these four public datasets demonstrate that the LE-Mamba outperforms eight mainstream deep learning models in classification performance.