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Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis) (SP) has been utilized for a long time as a valued feed supplement because of its proteinous content and other beneficial phytochemical compounds. Herein, we investigated the influences of SP-supplemented diets on growth, body somatic indices, digestive enzymes, hepatic antioxidant activities, and immunological responses of hapa-reared thinlip mullet (Liza ramada) juveniles. Fish were assigned in six triplicate groups and were fed for consecutive 60 days on the prepared experimental diets containing varying SP levels as 0.0, 2.0, 4.0, 6.0, 8.0, and 10.0 g/kg diet and defined as control (CNT or SP0), SP2, SP4, SP6, SP8, and SP10 groups, respectively. The results indicated that dietary SP supplementation linearly and quadratically improved the fish growth performance, and the highest growth indices were found in the SP8 group. However, dietary SP supplementation did not significantly alter feed conversion ratio (FCR), survival rate (%), hepato-somatic index, and viscera-somatic index among all experimental groups. Meanwhile, digestive enzymes (lipase, α-amylase, and proteases) in the mid-intestine were also linearly and quadratically increased in all SP-fed groups, and their uppermost values were noted in the SP8 group. Hepatic antioxidants such as superoxide dismutase, catalase, and total antioxidant capacity in SP-supplemented groups were significantly elevated than the CNT group. Conversely, hepatic malondialdehyde contents were decreased significantly along with increasing dietary SP-supplementation levels. The immunological parameters such as lysozyme, respiratory burst, and alternative complement activities were significantly elevated in SP-fed groups than in the CNT group. These findings evoked that feeding SP-supplemented diets (especially at 8.0 g/kg diet) significantly promoted the growth, digestive enzymes, hepatic antioxidant status, and immunity of L. ramada juveniles. • Dietary supplementation with Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis ; SP) (8.0 g/kg diet) for 60 days enhanced the growth performance of Liza ramada juveniles. • Dietary SP improved intestinal digestive enzymes and hepatic antioxidant activities of L. ramada. • Dietary SP enhanced serum immune parameters of juvenile L. ramada. • Spirulina could be considered as beneficial natural feed supplement for farmed L. ramada. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to determine the total concentration of minerals (Mg, Ca, Zn, Fe, Mn, and Cu) in Spirulina and camu-camu dietary supplements, to evaluate the bioaccessibility of minerals using in vitro digestion method, and to assess the correlation with protein, ash, lipids, dietary fibers and with the bioaccessible fraction (BF) of minerals. The vitamin C content of camu-camu was also determined, and its correlation with the mineral bioaccessible fraction was evaluated. Spirulina presented higher bioaccessible fractions in the gastrointestinal phase (%) for Mg (82−91), Zn (82−90), and Mn (64−81), followed by Cu (59−100), Ca (50−76), and Fe (37−45). Camu-camu supplements presented higher bioaccessible fractions (%) for Cu (100), Fe (32−104) and Ca (64−89), followed by Mn (7−93), Mg (4−99) and Zn (31−51), in the gastrointestinal phase. Mineral bioaccessibility showed negative correlations with the matrix, mainly with dietary fiber. It was evident that vitamin C was found to have favored the bioaccessibility of Fe and Ca in camu-camu. For 1 g intake of Spirulina, BF Fe contributes 6.6% of the Recommended Dietary Intake (RDI) of Fe and 3.6% of the RDI of Mg for camu-camu. Based on this study, an insight into the nutritional value of Spirulina and camu-camu in terms of minerals and the correlation with proximate composition was demonstrated. ● Mg and Ca were the most bioaccessible elements in spirulina. ● Dietary fiber influences mineral solubility in the gastrointestinal tract. ● Bioaccessible Fe in spirulina contributed 6% of the daily intake. ● An important correlation of metal bioaccessibility with the matrix was noticed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bioplastics have been used as alternatives to conventional petroleum-based plastics to lessen the burdens on marine and terrestrial environments due to their non-biodegradability and toxicity. However, recent studies have shown that not all bioplastics may be environmentally friendly. Microalgae, such as Spirulina that do not require arable land, have been identified as a potential bioplastic source. In this study, cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment (LCA) was carried out in openLCA program using the Agribalyse database, to evaluate the environmental impacts of Spirulina bioplastic, formed from plasticization of Spirulina powder with glycerol. Two processes were created for the inventories of (i) Spirulina powder and (ii) Spirulina bioplastic, where the output of the former served as an input for the latter. The extruded bioplastic sheets were food-grade and could be used as edible packaging materials. The bioplastic was also compared to conventional plastics and it was found that the energy consumption was 3.83 ± 0.26 MJ/kg-bioplastic, which was 12% and 22% higher than that of LDPE and PVC plastic films, respectively. The impacts on the environment showed that the chemical growth medium (Zarrouk medium) and electricity were the main contributors in most of the categories. Compared to the PVC and LDPE films, the Spirulina bioplastic's impacts on the aquatic ecosystems were 2–3 times higher. The global warming potential of the Spirulina bioplastic was 1.99 ± 0.014 kg CO 2 eq, which was 23% and 47% lower than that of LDPE and PVC films, respectively. Sensitivity analysis was carried out by changing the electricity source and using alternative growth media. Except for the case of switching to solar energy, the results for other cases did not differ significantly from the base case scenario. Future studies were suggested to identify different greener alternatives to the growth medium as well as different energy mixes for more environmentally benign solutions. [Display omitted] • Cradle-to-gate LCA was performed for edible Spirulina-based bioplastic production. • Its unit energy consumption was slightly higher than conventional plastic films'. • Zarrouk medium and electricity were major contributors to environmental impacts. • The bioplastic's impacts on aquatic ecosystems were higher than LDPE's and PVC's. • Switching to renewable solar energy can help reduce overall environmental impacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research focuses on the development of functional gluten-free breads with the use of pseudocereal, Psyllium and gluten-free sourdough to replace commercial yeast, fortifying them with non-encapsulated spirulina (NES) and encapsulated spirulina (ES). For that, different gluten-free breads were made with sourdough: three control breads differentiated by sourdough (quinoa, amaranth and brown rice), three free spirulina-enriched breads differentiated by sourdough, the other three breads enriched with encapsulated spirulina and a gluten-free commercial bread (COM). Antioxidant capacity, phenolic compounds, nutritional composition, physico-chemical parameters (color, pH and acidity), folate content, amino acid profile, reducing sugars, mineral composition, mineral bioaccessibility, fatty acid profile and sensory acceptability were evaluated. Free spirulina increased the nutritional properties of the bread, increasing the content of protein, total folate, 9t, 11t-C18:2 (CLA), C22:6n-3 (DHA), minerals and decreasing the carbohydrate content. However, encapsulated spirulina increased sensory properties, antioxidant capacity, phenolic compounds, bioaccessibility of iron and amino acids. The results have demonstrated the important potential of the use of bread as a means to combat nutritional deficiencies in celiacs, promoting the use of spirulina in bread within the healthy food market and the use of encapsulated spirulina protecting the antioxidant potential of spirulina, representing an alternative for the baking industry. • Development of encapsulated Spirulina and its application in a bakery product. • Bread reformulated: good sensory acceptance and retained the bioactive after the thermal process. • The encapsulation of Spirulina reported bioactive compounds in bread. • Development of clean-label bakery and the replacement of wheat and gluten with others cereals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a widely acknowledged source of sustainable food protein, there has been limited research on the functional properties of photosynthetic microorganism proteins (PsmPs) applied in food. The nutritional and functional attributes for meat analogue production of Spirulina platensis protein (SpirP), Chlorella pyrenoidosa protein (ChloP), and Schizochytrium sp. protein (SchiP) were investigated and compared with two widely utilized proteins: soy protein isolate (SPI) and wheat protein (WheaP). At a neutral pH, SpirP and SchiP exhibited high emulsifying activities of 69 and 66 m2/g, while ChloP (20 m2/g) was comparable to SPI (15 m2/g) and WheaP (19 m2/g). Their remarkable foaming capacity indicated their potentials to produce meat analogues with fibrous structures. The water absorption capacity of PsmPs (4.4–4.8 g water/g protein) was comparable to WheaP (4.7 g water/g protein), while the oil absorption capacity (3.7–4.4 g oil/g protein) was higher than SPI (2.7 g oil/g protein) and WheaP (3.3 g oil/g protein), implying their potential to produce juicy and tasty meat analogues. Besides, the heat-induced photosynthetic microorganism protein gels had stable structures. In summary, SpirP, ChloP, and SchiP emerge as outstanding protein sources and viable alternatives to SPI for the production of meat analogues. • Photosynthetic microorganism proteins had higher solubility than SPI at pH 3−11. • Photosynthetic microorganism proteins had high emulsifying activity at pH 7−9. • Spirulina platensis and Chlorella pyrenoidosa proteins had high foaming capacity. • Photosynthetic microbe proteins had prominent water and oil absorption capacities. • Photosynthetic microorganism proteins could form stable gels at 150 g/kg. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current research investigates the utilization of spirulina microalgae biodiesel blends in a naturally aspirated constant speed compression ignition engine with Ce 2 O 3 nanoparticles at the concentration of 50 ppm under diverse engine loading conditions. Blends of microalgae dispersed with neat diesel at the volume of 20% and 40%. A series of tests were conducted to evaluate the combined effects of microalgae and nanoparticles on engine performance, combustion efficiency, and emission characteristics. The study revealed that increasing the microalgae concentration in the diesel fuel resulted in reduced brake thermal efficiency due to less effective atomization and lower calorific value. Surprisingly, the 20% biodiesel blend with nanoparticles exhibited the highest brake thermal efficiency across various engine loads, while the 40% blend showed higher brake specific fuel consumption compared to both the 20% blend and neat diesel, primarily because of its lower heating value necessitating increased fuel consumption. Furthermore, the biodiesel blends led to lower in-cylinder pressure than pure diesel, mainly attributable to suboptimal atomization. In terms of emissions, the utilization of microalgae-based fuel led to a significant reduction in NOx, CO, and smoke emissions, attributed to the lower cylinder temperatures associated with these blends. In conclusion, this study underscores the potential of spirulina microalgae, particularly when combined with nanoparticles at an optimal concentration, as a promising and environmentally friendly alternative for compression ignition engines. • Spirulina microalgae tested at the concentrations of 20% and 40%. • BTE decreases due to poor atomization and lower calorific value with higher biodiesel blend concentrations. • Lower EGT signifies reduced combustion temperature, leading to decreased NOx formation. • Nanoparticles had minimal effect on HRR and reductions in NOx emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Anagonia spp. were found parasitizing 7% of field collected Gonipterus spp. larvae, in Tasmania. • One species, identified as Anagonia lasiophthalma , was successfully reared on Gonipterus platensis. • Females mated shortly after emergence and started parasitizing a week later. • On average, females produced 35 offspring and lived up to 84 days. • Biological traits suggest A. lasiophthalma may be effective against G. platensis. The Eucalyptus snout beetle, Gonipterus platensis , is one of the main pests of eucalypts outside its native range. Among the available control methods for this pest, classical biological control with Anaphes nitens (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) has been the most widely used, but it is not always effective. To identify other natural enemies that might provide further pest control, a field survey was conducted in Tasmania, Australia, in which Anagonia spp. were found to parasitize 7 % of Gonipterus spp. larvae. One species was subsequently identified as the solitary parasitoid Anagonia lasiophthalma , based on direct comparisons with research collection material in Australia. To assess the potential of this species as a biological control agent, A. lasiophthalma was reared on G. platensis larvae under quarantine conditions, and its biology and reproductive strategy were studied in the laboratory. Global mating success was 58 %, with 66 of the 114 A. lasiophthalma females analyzed mating within an established 10-day period. Most females mated within 48 h after emergence and started to parasitize about a week later. Dissections of mated females showed that this species is ovolarviparous, incubating its eggs in an ovisac, before inserting them "ready-to-hatch" directly into the host using a piercing structure derived from the modification of a sternite in the female terminalia. Over the course of their lifetime, females on average produced 35 offspring and post-mortem dissections revealed an additional 32 eggs in the ovisac. Longevity of females and males was similar, ranging between 55 and 84 days, but females maintained without host larvae lived longer than females exposed to host larvae. These results provide relevant information to improve laboratory rearing protocols and suggest that A. lasiophthalma may be effective against the snout beetle in its invaded range. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microalgae can play a key role in the bioeconomy, particularly in combination with the valorisation of waste streams as cultivation media. Urine is an example of a widely available nutrient-rich waste stream, and alkaline stabilization and subsequent full nitrification in a bioreactor yields a stable nitrate-rich solution. In this study, such nitrified urine served as a culture medium for the edible microalga Limnospira indica. In batch cultivation, nitrified urine without additional supplements yielded a lower biomass concentration, nutrient uptake and protein content compared to modified Zarrouk medium, as standard medium. To enhance the nitrogen uptake efficiency and biomass production, nitrified urine was supplemented with potentially limiting elements. Limited amounts of phosphorus (36 mg L−1), magnesium (7.9 mg L−1), calcium (12.2 mg L−1), iron (2.0 mg L−1) and EDTA (88.5 mg Na 2 -EDTA.2H 2 O L−1) rendered the nitrified urine matrix as effective as modified Zarrouk medium in terms of biomass production (OD 750 of 1.2), nutrient uptake (130 mg N L−1) and protein yield (47%) in batch culture. Urine precipitates formed by alkalinisation could in principle supply enough phosphorus, calcium and magnesium, requiring only external addition of iron, EDTA and inorganic carbon. Subsequently, the suitability of supplemented nitrified urine as a culture medium was confirmed in continuous Limnospira cultivation in a CSTR photobioreactor. This qualifies nitrified urine as a valuable and sustainable microalgae growth medium, thereby creating novel nutrient loops on Earth and in Space, i.e., in regenerative life support systems for human deep-space missions. [Display omitted] • Nitrified urine is a suitable culture medium for Limnospira indica. • Urine dilution is essential to maximize the N uptake efficiency. • Addition of P and micronutrients enhances N uptake and biomass production. • Successful continuous cultivation on supplemented nitrified urine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purified bioactive components of marine algae have shown great pharmaceutical and biomedical potential, including wound healing activity. However, the activity of Spirulina maxima is the least documented with regard to wound healing potential. In the present study, we investigated the regenerative and wound healing activities of a Spirulina (Arthrospira) maxima based pectin (SmP) using in vitro human dermal fibroblasts (HDFs) and in viv o zebrafish model. SmP treated (12.5–50 μg/mL) HDFs showed increased cell proliferation by 20–40% compared to the untreated HDFs. Moreover, in vitro wound healing results in HDFs demonstrated that SmP decreased the open wound area % in concentration-dependent manner at 12.5 (32%) and 25 μg/mL (12%) compared to the control (44%). Further, zebrafish larvae displayed a greater fin regenerated area in the SmP exposed group at 25 (0.48 mm2) and 50 μg/mL (0.51 mm2), whereas the untreated group had the lowest regenerated area (0.40 mm2) at 3 days post amputation. However, fin regeneration was significantly (P < 0.001) higher only in the SmP treated group at 50 μg/mL. Furthermore, the open skin wound healing % in adult zebrafish was significantly higher (P < 0.05) after topical application (600 μg/fish) of SmP (46%) compared to the control (38%). Upregulation of genes such as tgfβ1 , timp2b , mmp9 , tnf-α , and il-1β , and chemokines such as cxcl18b , ccl34a.4, and ccl34b.4, in the muscle and kidney tissues of SmP treated fish compared to the respective control group was demonstrated using qRT-PCR. Histological analysis results further supported the rapid epidermal growth and tissue remodeling in SmP treated fish, suggesting that SmP exerts positive effects associated with wound healing. Therefore, SmP can be considered a potential regenerative and wound healing agent. Image 1 • Spirulina maxima based pectin (SmP) promotes in vitro wound healing effect. • SmP exposed larval zebrafish enhances the caudal fin regeneration. • Wound healing was enhanced by topical application of SmP in adult zebrafish. • SmP modulates the transcription of inflammatory genes. • Biodegradable SmP could be a potential regenerative and wound-healing agent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Intragenerational protein malnutrition leads to hyperactivity and impaired spatial learning and memory. • Spirulina supplementation to protein deprived mothers accelerates reflex maturation in offspring. • Spirulina supplementation reduces mortality and ameliorates behavioral and cognitive problems in offspring. • Reduced microglial activation may contribute to the restoration of neurocognitive outcomes. Early life adversities (stress, infection and mal/undernutrition) can affect neurocognitive, hippocampal and immunological functioning of the brain throughout life. Substantial evidence suggests that maternal protein malnutrition contributes to the progression of neurocognitive abnormalities and psychopathologies in adolescence and adulthood in offspring. Maternal malnutrition is prevalent in low and middle resource populations. The present study was therefore undertaken to evaluate the effects of dietary Spirulina supplementation of protein malnourished mothers during pregnancy and lactation on their offspring's reflex, neurobehavioral and cognitive development. Spirulina is a Cyanobacterium and a major source of protein and is being used extensively as a dynamic nutraceutical against aging and neurodegeneration. Sprague Dawley rats were switched to low protein (8% protein) or normal protein (20% protein) diet for 15 days before conception. Spirulina was orally administered (400 mg/kg/b.wt.) to subgroups of pregnant females from the day of conception throughout the lactational period. We examined several parameters including reproductive performance of dams, physical development, postnatal reflex ontogeny, locomotor behavior, neuromuscular strength, anxiety, anhedonic behavior, cognitive abilities and microglia populations in the F1 progeny. The study showed improved reproductive performance of Spirulina supplemented protein malnourished dams, accelerated acquisition of neurological reflexes, better physical appearance, enhanced neuromuscular strength, improved spatial learning and memory and partly normalized PMN induced hyperactivity, anxiolytic and anhedonic behavior in offspring. These beneficial effects of Spirulina consumption were also accompanied by reduced microglial activation which might assist in restoring the behavioral and cognitive skills in protein malnourished F1 rats. Maternal Spirulina supplementation is therefore proposed as an economical nutraceutical/supplement to combat malnutrition associated behavioral and cognitive deficits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we demonstrate the enhanced disease resistance and positive immunomodulation of novel pectin isolated from Spirulina maxima (SmP) in zebrafish model. Zebrafish larvae exposed to SmP had significantly (p < 0.05) higher cumulative percent survival (CPS) at 25 (44.0%) and 50 μg/mL (67.0%) against Edwardsiella piscicida compared to the control. However, upon Aeromonas hydrophila challenge, SmP exposed larvae at 50 μg/mL had slightly higher CPS (33.3%) compared to control group (26.7%). SmP supplemented zebrafish exhibited the higher CPS against E. piscicida (93.3%) and A. hydrophila (60.0%) during the early stage of post-infection (<18 hpi). qRT-PCR results demonstrated that exposing (larvae) and feeding (adults) of SmP, drive the modulation of a wide array of immune response genes. In SmP exposed larvae, up-regulation of the antimicrobial enzyme (lyz : 3.5-fold), mucin (muc5.1 : 2.84, muc5.2 : 2.11 and muc5.3 : 2.40-fold), pro-inflammatory cytokines (il1β : 1.79-fold) and anti-oxidants (cat : 2.87 and sod1 : 1.82-fold) were identified. In SmP fed adult zebrafish (gut) showed >2-fold induced pro-inflammatory cytokine (il1β) and chemokines (cxcl18b , ccl34a.4 and ccl34b.4). Overall results confirmed the positive modulation of innate immune responses in larval stage and it could be the main reason for developing disease resistance against E. piscicida and A. hydrophila. Thus, non-toxic, natural and biodegradable SmP could be considered as the potential immunomodulatory agent for sustainable aquaculture. Image 1 • Spirulina maxima based pectin (SmP) exposed zebrafish larvae enhances the diseases resistance. • SmP induces the mucin 5.1 and mucin 5.3 in zebrafish larvae and gut, respectively. • Biodegradable SmP could be a potential immunostimulant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study assesses and models the growth of microalgae during the combined processes of concurrent eliminations of CO 2 from off-gas and nutrients from wastewater. The growth of single (Spirulina platensis , SP.PL) and mixed (mixed indigenous microalgae, MIMA) algae strains was tested in a pilot plant under natural conditions. The specific growth rate (μ), biomass production (P bio), CO 2 biofixation rate (R CO2), and contaminate (organic matter and nutrient) reductions were investigated in response to the changes in concentration of CO 2 , nutrient and organic matters as well as solar irradiation. A mathematical model that incorporates the effect of growth variables: organic matter (COD), total inorganic nitrogen (TIN), total phosphate (TP), solar irradiation and dissolved CO 2 was developed to predict the strains growth rate. The maximum value of μ for single strain was determined to occur at 40 mg COD/L, 20 mg-N/L, 8.9 mg-P/L, 12% CO 2 (v/v) and 7.45 μE/m2.s. MIMA showed a maximum value of μ at 55 mg COD/L, 17 mg-N/L, 10 mg-P/L, 17% CO 2 and 8.45 μE/m2.s. The predicted growth rates confirmed the ability of the model to match experimental data. Microalgae can be successfully used in sustainable CO 2 capturing and wastewater treatment technology. Image 1 • Algae growth and carbon dioxide bio-fixation rate were experimentally investigated. • Mathematical models for algae growth under real growth conditions was established. • The model consider the effect of organic matter, nutrients, solar irradiation and CO 2. • The optimum growth conditions for single and mixed strains were determined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biogas slurry (BS) is a main byproduct of biogas production that is commonly used for agricultural irrigation because of its abundant nutrients and microelements. However, direct application of BS may cause quality decline and nitrate and heavy metal accumulation in crops. To address this issue, a microalgae culture experiment and an irrigation experiment were performed to evaluate the removal efficiencies of nutrients and heavy metals from diluted BS by microalgae Scenedesmus sp. and to investigate the effects of irrigation with microalgae-treated BS (MBS-25, MBS-50, MBS-75, and MBS-100) on nutritional quality, oxidation resistance, and nitrate and heavy metal residues in Chinese cabbage. After 8 days of continuous culture, a ratio of 1/1 for BS/tap water mixture (BS-50) was the optimal proportion for microalgal growth (3.73 g dry cell L−1) and efficient removal of total nitrogen (86.1%), total phosphorus (94.3%), COD (87.5%), Cr (50%), Pb (60.7%), and Cd (59.7%). The pH in MBS-50 medium recovered to the highest level in a shorter period of time and accelerated the gas stripping of ammonia nitrogen and the formation of insoluble phosphate and metals, which partly contributed to the high removal efficiencies. MBS irrigation significantly promoted crop growth; improved nutritional quality, edible taste, and oxidation resistance; and reduced nitrate and heavy metal residues in Chinese cabbage at a large scale. Therefore, microalgae culture was beneficial to reduce negative impacts of BS irrigation in crop growth and agricultural product safety. This study may provide a theoretical basis for the safe utilization of BS waste in agricultural irrigation. • Tap water as diluent reduced the cost of BS treatment and Scenedesmus sp. culture. • The BS: tap water of 1:1 achieved the best microalgae growth and pollution removal. • MBS irrigation improved crop yield, nutritional quality, and oxidation resistance. • MBS irrigation reduced consumption risks of nitrate and heavy metal accumulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper was to develop broccoli soups enriched in Spirulina sp., Chlorella sp., or Tetraselmis sp., at concentrations ranging from 0.5 to 2.0% (w/v), and to assess the effect of microalgae incorporation on their quality and acceptance. Incorporation of freeze-dried microalgae biomass into the broccoli soup resulted in lower L* values, especially after incorporation of Spirulina sp. and Chlorella sp. Microalgae incorporation also led to an increased content of polyphenols and to a higher antioxidant capacity. Microalgae-containing soups showed a higher amount of bioaccessible polyphenols, calculated after a simulated gastrointestinal digestion (ranging between 32.9 ± 1.1 and 45.6 ± 0.5 mg/100 mL). The acceptability index of soups formulated using lower microalgae concentrations was over 70% suggesting that the soups would be well accepted. Indeed, the purchase intention of the soups containing microalgae at 0.5% (w/v) ranged between 3.4 and 4.1 (assessed using a 5-point hedonic scale). • Microalgae incorporation into broccoli soup. • Microalgae-containing soups had a higher phenolic content and antioxidant capacity. • The content of bioaccessible polyphenols was higher in microalgae-containing soups. • High acceptability indexes were obtained for soups containing microalgae at 0.5%. • High purchase intention scores for soups containing 0.5–1.0% microalgae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to evaluate changes in the physicochemical properties and amino acid profiles of pork sausages prepared by including vegetable protein sources (beans, peas, and lentils), microalgae (Chlorella and Spirulina) or whey, as compared with a control (soy protein). Significant differences were found for all the studied parameters. The protein content was significantly lower in sausages made with pea protein compared with the control. Colour parameters changed significantly after the incorporation of microalgae proteins. Moreover, significant differences among treatments were observed in the amino acid profile. The inclusion of Spirulina proteins resulted in an increase in the total amino acid content and the ratio of essential/non-essential amino acids. Orthogonal Projections to Latent Structures Discriminant Analysis (OPLS-DA) allowed pork sausages to be classified according to the protein source, in comparison with soy (control). Textural parameters (chewiness, gumminess and hardness) followed by colour and pH were the most discriminant parameters. Considering texture traits, physicochemical parameters and amino acid profiles across treatments, proteins from legumes and whey provided profiles closer to that of soy. However, although microalgae-derived proteins altered the colour and texture, they provided nutritionally favourable profiles, thus suggesting that seaweeds could also be used to enrich pork sausages, as an alternative to soy protein. • Colour parameters changed significantly after the incorporation of microalgae proteins. • The inclusion of Spirulina proteins resulted in an increase in the total amino acids content. • Seaweeds could be used to enrich pork sausages, as an alternative to soy protein. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electrospinning was used to develop zein fibers containing phycocyanin and aqueous-ethanolic extract of Spirulina (AEES) for elucidating the potent packaging properties of phycocyanin and AEES on walnut samples. Morphological results revealed that using the fibers at 0.3 g/mL concentration resulted in optimal outcomes under the conditions of 15 kV, 0.5 mL/h, and 10 cm. These findings showed that phycocyanin-loaded and AEES-loaded zein fibers were similar in morphology and diameter. The encapsulation efficiencies of phycocyanin-loaded and AEES-loaded zein fibers were 90.60% and 90.68%, respectively. Moreover, phycocyanin-loaded and AEES-loaded zein fibers were more active against Staphylococcus aureus than Escherichia coli. By measuring the total phenol content, flavonoid content, and antioxidant activity, the walnut samples were suitably packaged by both phycocyanin-loaded and AEES-loaded zein fibers. The packaging materials decreased peroxide and thiobarbituric acid values in the walnut samples. The results propose the suitability of zein fibers with phycocyanin and AEES for applications on perishable food products as promising antioxidant food packaging materials. [Display omitted] • Phycocyanin- and AEES-loaded zein fibers had same morphology and diameter. • AEES was thermostabilized after incorporation into zein fiber. • Antioxidant and antibacterial activities were donated by phycocyanin and AEES. • Phycocyanin- and AEES-loaded zein fibers reduced PV and TBA of walnut during storage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The shift in focus towards biofuels has led to the attention towards fourth-generation fuels, particularly microalgae, due to its high oil productivity and simple cultivation processes. The current study aimed to examine the effects of spirulina microalgae blends in a naturally aspirated diesel engine by testing two blend percentages (15% and 30%) and incorporating Fe 2 O 3 nanoparticles (75 ppm). A series of test conducted in a single-cylinder engine with an optimum compression ratio of 17.5. The fuels tested include 100% diesel (D0), diesel with Fe 2 O 3 nanoparticles (DF), diesel with 15% microalgae blends (B15), diesel with 15% microalgae blends and Fe 2 O 3 nanoparticles (B15F), diesel with 30% microalgae blends (B30), and diesel with 30% microalgae blends and Fe 2 O 3 nanoparticles (B30F). The results showed that the addition of microalgae blends led to a marginal increase in engine performance, while the addition of Fe 2 O 3 nanoparticles led to a significant increase in brake thermal efficiency and decreased fuel consumption. The emissions rate was also lower compared to diesel, but the addition of Fe 2 O 3 nanoparticles increased the oxygen content in the fuel, thereby improving the combustion rates. By ensuring the complete combustion the formation of CO 2 , HC and smoke intensity was also found to be significantly lower compared to diesel fuel. On the contrary, NOx increased due to the cylinder temperatures. This research highlights the potential of using microalgae as a sustainable source of biofuel, and the positive effects of adding Fe 2 O 3 nanoparticles to enhance the fuel's efficiency. [Display omitted] • The study investigated the impact of adding spirulina microalgae blends with Fe 2 O 3. • The microalgae blends contributed to a slight improvement in engine performance. • Incorporating Fe 2 O 3 nanoparticles resulted in a noteworthy increase in BTE and a reduction in BSFC. • Inclusion of Fe 2 O 3 nanoparticles boosted the oxygen content in the fuel, leading to improved combustion rates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chronic exposure to stress during adolescent period has been demonstrated to impair cognitive functions and the dendritic morphology of pyramidal neurons in the rat hippocampal CA3 area. The present study investigated the combined protective effects of Spirulina platensis (SP), a supplement made from blue-green algae with neuroprotective properties, voluntary exercise (EX) and environmental enrichment (EE) against cognitive deficits, alternations in hippocampal BDNF levels, and abnormal neuronal remodeling in adult female rats (PND 60) induced by exposure to chronic restraint stress during adolescent period (PND 30–40). Rats were exposed to restraint stress (2 h/day for 10 days, PND 30–40). Then, the animals were subjected to treatment with SP (200 mg/kg/day), EX, EE and the combined treatments (SP + EX, and SP + EE) between PND 41 and 55 of age. Following the interventions, spatial learning and memory, passive avoidance performance, hippocampal dendritic morphology and BDNF levels were assessed. Results showed that plasma corticosterone levels increased at PND 40 and remained elevated at PND 55 and 70 in the stressed rats. Stressed rats showed deficits in spatial learning and memory and passive avoidance performance, decreased BDNF levels in the hippocampus, and reduced apical dendritic length and branch points of the CA3 pyramidal neurons. These deficits were alleviated by the SP, EX and EE, and the combined treatments, which accompanied with a decline in serum corticosterone in stressed animals. Some treatments even enhanced cognitive functions, and BDNF levels and neuroanatomical remodeling in the hippocampus of non-stressed animals. Our findings provide important evidences that physical activity, exposure to EE, and the SP treatment during adolescent period can protect against adolescent stress induced behavioral, biochemical and neuroanatomical impairments in adulthood. • Adolescent stress induces cognitive and hippocampal BDNF in adulthood. • Adolescent stress causes dendritic retraction in CA3 pyramidal neurons in adulthood. • Spirulina platensis (SP) treatment, enriched environment (EE) and exercise ameliorated stress effects. • Combined treatments were more effective against stress effects on BDNF and dendritic morphology. • Using SP, EE and physical activity are efficient therapeutic ways against adolescent stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Herein, we evaluated the immunomodulatory and the antiviral protective properties of a cyanobacteria-enriched diet on the immune responses of the Pacific white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei challenged with the White spot syndrome virus (WSSV). Shrimp were fed with an Arthrospira platensis supplemented feed during 20 days, and its effects were examined by evaluating well-known standardized shrimp immune parameters (total hemocyte counts, total protein concentration, phenoloxidase activity, and serum agglutination titer). Additionally, we assessed the expression of crucial genes involved in both hemolymph- and gut-based immunities related to the shrimp capacity to circumvent viral and microbial infections. Dietary supplementation improved shrimp survival rates after challenge with a median lethal dose of WSSV. From all immune parameters tested, only the serum agglutination titer was higher in treated animals. On the other hand, the expression of some representative marker genes from different immune response pathways was only modulated in the midgut and not in the circulating hemocytes, suggesting that this feed supplementation can be used as an attractive strategy to enhance immunity in shrimp gut. Altogether, our results evidence the immunomodulatory properties of A. platensis supplemented feed in shrimp humoral and intestinal defenses and highlight the potential use of cyanobacteria-based immunostimulants in shrimp farming for protection against infectious diseases. Highlights • Agglutination capacity was higher in shrimp treated with the Arthrospira -based diet. • Arthrospira -enriched feed modulated the expression of immune genes in the midgut. • Dietary supplementation increased the abundance of intestinal bacteria. • Arthrospira extracts are potential immunostimulants to shrimp gut immunity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract This study was performed to evaluate the effect of spirulina whole cell (Sp-WC) and spirulina nanoparticles (Sp-NPs) as an antioxidant in olive oil (OO) under accelerated storage at 60 ± 1 °C up to 49 days. Sp-NPs were incorporated into freshly OO at 0.25, 0.5, and 1% (w/v), Sp-WC at 0.5% (w/v), and both of them compared with 0.01% BHT and 0.01% α-tocopherol as a reference and without antioxidant as the control sample. The kinetic rate of oxidation markers and shelf life (assuming Q10 value of 2.0 for lipid oxidation) of OO were estimated. Sp-NPs exhibited a high phenolic content and antioxidant activity. In Sp-NPs-treated samples, the contents of thiobarbituric acid (TBA), peroxide, p -anisidine, totox, K 232 , and K 270 were significantly lower than the control. The rate constant (k) was low in OO with BHT and 1% Sp-NPs compared with other treatments. Chlorophyll content in olive oil containing Sp-NPs was improved during the storage. The antioxidant indices and sensory attributes of oil samples including Sp-NPs were significantly higher than that of the control. These results confirmed that Sp-NPs were more effective in retarding oxidation, improving oil color, and extending shelf life (up to 475 days at 25 °C). Highlights • Spirulina nanoparticles (Sp-NPs) were prepared and evaluated as natural ingredient. • Sp-NPs exhibited high antioxidant capacity and strongly inhibited the oil oxidation. • The oxidative stability of olive oil was enhanced by 1% Sp-NPs. • Sp-NPs improved olive oil color compared with BHT and α-tocopherol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Nanoemulsions present several advantages over macroemulsions, since they guarantee characteristics of compounds such as greater bioavailability, kinetic stability, besides facilitating the transport of compounds of interest. The incorporation of biopeptides into nanoemulsions makes its applicability viable in several areas such as cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and foods. Linked to this, the use of microalgal lipids rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids such as the oil phase in a nanoemulsion, gets attractive when one consults data of its benefits to human health. The objective of this study was to develop lipid-based nanoemulsions extracted from de microalga Spirulina sp. LEB18, with incorporation of biopeptides obtained from this same microalga, evaluating its nanoemulsions antioxidant activity. Distilled water and Tween® 80 surfactant were used as the aqueous phase and as microalgal lipid oil phase, a solvent mixture of chloroform-methanol (2:1) and biopeptides was used. The nanoemulsions presented mean droplet diameter at the range of 222.9 ± 3.4 to 466.9 ± 5.3 nm, remaining constant over the period analyzed (14 d). Moreover, all nanoemulsions presented antioxidant activity and electrostatic stability, having zeta potential values below −30 mV. It was also possible to observe that lipids from Spirulina sp. LEB18 presented stabilizing capacity, acting as biosurfactant. Graphical abstract Image 1 Highlights • Spirulina peptides generated by protein hydrolysis exhibit antioxidant activity. • Spirulina sp. LEB18 lipids presented stabilizing capacity, acting as biosurfactant. • Nanoemulsions present several advantages over macroemulsions. • All nanoemulsions presented antioxidant activity and electrostatic stability. • Nanoemulsions with biopeptides makes its applicability viable in several areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are one of the most important causes of death worldwide. Dyslipidemia is one of the main causal risk factors for CVD that can be controlled by modifying lifestyle, which entails the use of healthy diets containing functional foods. The present study was conducted to summarize the effects of Spirulina on the lipid profile in previous randomized controlled trials. MEDLINE, Scopus, Clarivate Analytics Web of Science, and the Cochrane Library databases were searched systematically until January 2023, for clinical interventions that investigated the effect of Spirulina supplementation on plasma lipid profile concentrations. ooled results of 20 studies (with 23 arms and 1076 participants) indicated that Spirulina intervention significantly reduced LDL-C (SMD: −0.6, 95% CI: −0.9, −0.2, P<0.05), TC (SMD: −0.6, 95% CI: −0.9, −0.2, P<0.05) and TG (SMD: −0.6, 95% CI: −0.9, −0.2, P<0.05) levels while HDL-C levels were significantly increased (SMD: 0.3, 95% CI: 0.0, 0.6, P<0.05). The findings of the present meta-analysis and review show the usefulness of supplementing with Spirulina in improving serum levels of TC, TG, LDL-C, and HDL-C. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study aimed at (i) producing the microalga Arthrospira platensis BEA 005B using 80 m2 raceway reactors and (ii) to assess the potential use of the produced biomass as a food colour in macarons. The biomass production was carried out during winter and the productivity of the system ranged between 8 and 10 g m−2·day−1 depending on the depth of the culture (0.10–0.20 m). Illumina sequencing revealed that A. platensis represented over 85% of the prokaryotic populations; other alkaliphile strains were also identified. The produced biomass was mainly composed of protein (57.0 g·100 g−1) and contained natural and valuable pigments including chlorophylls (6.7 mg·100 g−1), carotenoids (1.8 mg·100 g−1), phycocyanins (115.4 mg·100 g−1), and allophycocyanins (36.9 mg·100 g−1). The effect of pH variations and thermal processing (121 °C, 15 min) on the colour of the biomass and on the stability of the main pigments was studied. The produced biomass was used to mimic the colour of two synthetic pigments used in green macarons. The lowest colour difference between the commercial and the microalgae-containing macarons was around 5 at a concentration of 3.5 mg g−1. The pigmentation capacity of the biomass was so high that the small quantities added did not affect the nutritional value of the macarons. • The microalga A. platensis BEA 005B was produced using 80 m2 raceway reactors. • The biomass productivity was 8–10 g m−2·day−1 depending on the depth of the culture. • Spirulina was the predominant strain; algal predators were detected. • The biomass showed a high protein content and potential for use as a food colourant. • The small quantities used for colouring did not affect the antioxidant capacity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this work was to develop snacks enriched with Spirulina and thus improve their nutritional characteristics. Two formulations were developed: SP added with 2.6% Spirulina sp. LEB 18 and C (0% Spirulina ). These snacks were evaluated with respect to the nutritional content (protein, lipids, ash, carbohydrates, carotenoids and in vitro protein digestibility), physical properties (expansion index, bulk density, hardness, water absorption index, water solubility index, microstructure and color parameters) and sensorial characteristics (flavor, color, taste, texture, overall acceptance and purchase intention), as well as microbiological analyses. The addition of Spirulina provided nutritional increase of 22.6% in proteins, 28.1% in lipids and 46.4% in minerals, without significantly affecting (p > .05) the physical parameters such as expansion index and hardness. The pigments of such microalga significantly influenced (p < .05) the color parameters evaluated. Microstructure evaluation of the formulation added with Spirulina showed structures with thin cell walls (18.50 ± 1.50 μm). Furthermore, this formulation resulted in a sensory acceptance index of 82%. It was concluded that Spirulina can be used in the concentration of 2.6% resulting in snacks with high nutritional content and sensory acceptance. Thus, this product can be used as ready-to-eat food by consumers which look for a healthier diet. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One hundred and eighty Nile tilapia fish were used in eighty-three-day growth trial. Fish were divided into three treatment groups. The first group T0 was given the basal diet without any supplementation and served as the control group. The second group T1 was given the basal diet supplemented by 1% Spirulina . The third group T2 was given the basal diet supplemented by 2% Spirulina . At the end of the growth performance trial, a challenge trial was conducted using virulent strain of Pseudomonas fluorescens . Clinical signs, mortalities, postmortem lesions and histopathological alterations were recorded. Hematological, biochemical, oxidative stress and immunological parameters were measured after challenge with Pseudomonas fluorescens . Growth performance was non significantly improved in tilapia fed the diet with 1% Spirulina supplementation (T1). There were neither signs nor mortalities among fishes belonging to 1% Spirulina challenged group. The results showed that Spirulina has a positive effect on hematological, biochemical parameters, MDA, SOD and CAT at T1 (1% spirulia) rather than T2 (2%spirulia). Moreover, the results indicate that Spirulina 1% enhanced bactericidal, phagocytic and lysozyme activities conferring protection against infection. Our results demonstrated a significant up-regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokine (IL-1β and TNF-α) and a down-regulation of anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10). We concluded that 1% Spirulina supplementation significantly improved immunity of Nile tilapia against Pseudomonas fluorescence than 2% Spirulina supplementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The microalga Spirulina and açaí fruit are foods with high concentrations of bioactive compounds. This work aimed to evaluate consumers' perceptions and attitudes toward these foods. A paper and pencil survey were sent to addresses in Switzerland. A total of 479 questionnaires were returned, 442 of which were valid. According to the results, more than 50% of the participants did not demonstrate any previous knowledge about Spirulina or açaí. In general, Spirulina -enriched foods most likely to be included in the participants' diets were pasta and cereal bars. For açaí, the enriched foods most likely to be consumed regularly were yogurt and juice. Preference varied with age, with cereal bars (fortified with Spirulina or açaí) being more likely to be consumed by young people. These results can help entities who develop, produce, and market these foods (or foods enriched with these ingredients) and serve as a basis for developing strategies for different consumer groups. • Consumer perceptions about superfoods (Spirulina and açaí) were evaluated. • More than 50% of the participants were uninformed about Spirulina and açaí. • Health and sustainability were considered key arguments for Spirulina consumption. • Pasta and cereal bars had greater scores for foods with Spirulina. • Açaí-enriched products most likely to be consumed were yogurt and juice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Osborne sequential extraction procedure was performed to extract proteins from Arthrospira platensis (A. platensis). The physicochemical description of the extracted proteins yielded three fractions (albumins (Alb, 51.5 %), globulins (Glb, 2.4 %), and prolamins (Pro, 46.1 %)). No glutelin-like proteins (Glu) were found in this microalga. FTIR spectra displayed the β-turn, the β-sheet, and the α-helix as the principal structures in the Alb, Glb, and Pro fractions, respectively; the random coil was absent in the Pro fraction. The zeta-potential measurements indicated isoelectric points closer to 3.0 and 4.5 for the Alb and Glb protein fractions, respectively. In contrast, the Pro protein fraction displayed a negative charge for pH values from 2 to 10. The Alb and Glb fractions exhibited the highest surface hydrophobicity. The best water-holding capacity was attributed to the Alb and Glb fractions, whereas the highest oil-holding capacity and foam stability were assigned to the Pro fraction. The surface hydrophobicity was positively correlated to the emulsion generation. The Osborne method is a promising procedure to obtain green (Alb), blue (Glb), and orangish-red (Pro) extracts from A. platensis through an environment-friendly process. [Display omitted] • A. platensis proteins were fractionated into Alb, Glb and Pro fractions. • The β-turn was the predominant structure in the Alb protein fraction. • The β-sheet was the predominant structure in the Glb protein fraction. • The α-helix was the predominant structure in the Pro protein fraction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of Spirulina dried powder (SDP) on the immune response of white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei was studied in vitro and in vivo . Incubating shrimp haemocytes in 0.5 mg ml −1 SDP caused the degranulation of haemocytes and a reduction in the percentage of large cells within 30 min. Shrimp haemocytes incubated in 1 mg ml −1 SDP significantly increased their phenoloxidase (PO) activity, serine proteinase activity, and respiratory burst activity (RB, release of superoxide anion). A recombinant protein of lipopolysaccharide and β-1,3-glucan binding protein (LGBP) of the white shrimp was produced, named r Lv LGBP, and examined for its binding with SDP. An ELISA binding assay showed that r Lv LGBP binds to SDP with a dissociation constant of 0.0507 μM. In another experiment, shrimp fed diets containing SDP at 0 (control), 30, and 60 g kg −1 after four weeks were examined for LGBP transcript level and lysozyme activity, as well as phagocytic activity, clearance efficiency, and resistance to Vibrio alginolyticus . These parameters were significantly higher in shrimp receiving diets containing SDP at 60 g kg −1 or 30 g kg −1 than in controls. In conclusion, shrimp haemocytes receiving SDP provoked the activation of innate immunity as evidenced by the recognition and binding of LGBP, degranulation of haemocytes, reduction in the percentage of large cells, increases in PO activity, serine proteinase activity, superoxide anion levels, and up-regulated LGBP transcript levels. Shrimp receiving diets containing SDP had increased lysozyme activity and resistance against V . alginolyticus infection. This study showed the mechanism underlying the immunostimulatory action of Spirulina and its immune response in shrimp. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to formulate a gluten- and sugar-free cereal bars, enriched with spirulina and flavored with neroli essential oil. The basic formula consists of gluten-free cereals (SCB). Then, sugar and glucose syrup are replaced by a mixture of three sweeteners (maltodextrin, sorbitol and, maltitol syrup). The D-optimal mixture design was used to optimize the influence of these three sweeteners on the sensory quality of cereal bars. The optimized mixture fractions of the best formulation, containing 10 g/100 g maltodextrin, 10 g/100 g sorbitol, and 80 g/100 g maltitol syrup of the total sweeteners. The best formulation was flavored with 20 μL/100 g of neroli essential oil (CB), and enriched with 2 g/100 g spirulina (CBS). Formulations were compared in terms of nutritional, physical, microbial, and sensory characteristics. The addition of spirulina increases the nutritional content and antioxidant inhibition. Then, CB and CBS were found in Nutri-Score category A. In addition, they are very natural, and stable for 60 days storage at room temperature. [Display omitted] • Formulation of gluten-and sugar-free cereal bar enriched with spirulina and flavored with Neroli EO. • Formulated cereal bars have the highest nutritional value, in the Nutri-Score A category. • Formulated cereal bars are very natural and appreciated by the sensory judges. • Formulated cereal bars are stable for 60 days storage at room temperature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biological and Agricultural Engineering Department, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, United States. Tel.: +1 530 754 9530; fax: +1 530 752 2640. Biological and Agricultural Engineering DepartmentUniversity of California, DavisOne Shields AvenueDavisCA95616United StatesThe effects of hydraulic retention time (HRT) and organic loading rate (OLR) were investigated during a continuous anaerobic digestion of Spirulina platensis. The continuous process operated with varying HRT (10-25 d) and OLR (1.0-4.0 [g VS] l-1 d-1) resulted in the biogas and methane yields in the range of 0.276-0.502 l [g VS] -1 and 0.163-0.342 l [g VS] -1, respectively. The methane yield decreased with the increase in OLR and the reduction in HRT. Maximum methane yield of 0.342 l [g VS] -1 was produced when the digester was operated at OLR of 1.0 [g VS] l-1 d-1 and 25 d HRT. A mathematical model was developed from a kinetic study for predicting methane yield as the function of HRT during a continuous digestion. The model performed well at OLR lower than 2.0 [g VS] l-1 d-1, at which the digestion was not limited by high ammonia levels or volatile fatty acid accumulation. Highlights· Kinetics and methane yield of Spirulina were determined by anaerobic digestion. · Effects of hydraulic retention time and organic loading rate were investigated. · Ammonia inhibition and VFA accumulation at high organic loadings were elucidated. · Kinetic model was developed to predict methane yield from digestion of microalgae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Fast and reliable UHPLC-PDA method to differentiate cobalamin and its pseudo-form. • Investigation of 57 algae-derived nutritional supplements (Chlorella and Spirulina). • Physiologically active cobalamin as prevailing form in Chlorella. • High content of pseudo-vitamin B 12 in Spirulina products found. • Unintentionally false claims of too high levels of vitamin B 12 possible in algae. In order to find out whether algae-based nutritional supplements contain both physiologically active vitamin B 12 and its non-active pseudo-form, a simple and fast ultra-high performance liquid chromatography method with UV detection was developed to separate these two forms. A total of 57 commercially available microalgae products based on Chlorella and Spirulina were analyzed. Results obtained showed a broad variety of the content of total vitamin B 12 ranging from not-detectable to 445.9 μg 100g−1 dry matter for Chlorella samples, and between 92.8 and 164.1 μg 100g−1 dry matter for Spirulina products. However, there was a big variation in the concentration of pseudo-vitamin B 12 within all samples analyzed. Chlorella products contained mainly physiologically active cobalamin, while pseudo-vitamin B 12 was the prevailing form in Spirulina -labeled nutritional supplements. The importance of being able to differentiate between cobalamin and its pseudo-form in algae is not only relevant for food analysts, but also regarding consumer protection since they have to be able to rely on the correct labeling of nutritional supplements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Samples of dihé , a natural food product traditionally consumed in the lake Chad region in Africa, made of dried algae of the Arthrospira genus, were analysed to evaluate their nutritional quality and some aspects of safety of use. Traditional dihé resulted to be a food of high nutritional quality, with an elevated content of high biological quality proteins, rich in mineral elements, with an interesting quantity of lipids containing essential unsaturated fatty acids, a generally sufficient and often very high content of folates, a good content of phenols and of vitamin E and an elevated content of carotenoid pigments, especially beta carotene. The dihé characteristics varied with the site and the season. Samples of dihé produced with a new experimental technique that allows to obtain a sand-free, microbiologically safer product, were also analysed. The comparison between traditional and improved dihé revealed that the improved technique is less protective of photosensitive and thermolabile nutrients, like folates, phenols, vitamin E and carotenoids. This study also revealed the presence, in both the traditional and the improved product, of heavy metals and other elements of toxicological interest. However, the potential danger represented by these elements is dependant on the level of consumption of dihé. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of the incorporation of spirulina on technological and nutritional quality of dried pasta. Wheat flour was substituted by spirulina biomass at three levels: 5, 10 and 20 g/100 g, and a sample without spirulina biomass was made as control. The technological quality was analyzed in terms of cooking properties and texture profile, while pasta surface was observed by confocal microscopy. In addition, protein content, in vitro protein digestibility, phenolic compound content and in vitro antioxidant activity were the major bio-functional characteristics measured. An in vitro starch digestion was performed in order to estimate the glycemic index. Only pasta with 20 g of spirulina / 100 g of flour did slightly modify technological quality parameters; microstructure studies revealed the impact of spirulina addition, resulting in a more heterogeneous surface. The glycemic index was not affected by the addition of spirulina. The incorporation of spirulina resulted in an increase of protein content; however, protein digestibility was reduced as microalgae content increased. Pasta with spirulina exhibited high phenolic compounds content and antioxidant activity compared to control pasta, which could be used to enhance the nutritional profile of the product. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Highlights: [•] Natural plant’s defense can enhance agricultural productivity and food safety. [•] Phenolic acids obtained of Spirulina acts as natural fungicides. [•] Inhibition of trichothecenes production by an antifungal component was studied. [•] Phenolic acids reduced NIV and DON levels produced by F. graminearum complex. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Biosorption of phenol onto bionanoparticles from Spirulina sp. LEB 18 was studied. [•] The maximum biosorption capacity was about 159mgg−1. [•] The biosorption was a spontaneous, favorable and exothermic process. [•] The bionanoparticles are a renewable and eco-friendly biosorbent to removal phenol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Finding natural food coloring options from plant-based sources to substitute artificial dyes is a challenging task because natural dyes often present low water-solubility, not very vibrant hues, and instability due to interactions with food ingredients. Chemometric approaches can be used to evaluate color differences and patterns resulting from natural and synthetic dyes when applied to food systems. Here, the Mixture Design and the Principal Component Analysis (PCA) were applied to evaluate the substitution of the following artificial food dyes: yolk yellow, apricot yellow, strawberry red, and tartrazine by natural dyes (water-soluble curcumin, yellow shade; Hibiscus sabdariffa extract, red shade; Spirulina platensis extract, blue/green shade), in three food simulated systems (phosphate buffer, pH 6.9; yogurt, pH 4.0 and citrate buffer, pH 3.0). The color parameters L*, a*, b*, C* and °h were determined and color difference (ΔE*) with artificial dyes resulted in 11 empirical models. PCA yielded a clear map for the identification of the closely matches natural/artificial dyes for the food simulated systems in three subregions. Furthermore, the antioxidant capacity of the natural dyes was determined by OxHLIA and TBARS. It was possible to make an assessment guide that may be useful for other food systems and dyes. • Curcumin, hibiscus and spirulina are great sources of natural dyes. • Color difference (ΔE*) between their blends and artificial dyes was evaluated. • Mixture experimental design yielded empirical models to describe ΔE*. • Principal Component Analysis yielded a visual tool to identify color proximity. • Curcumin, hibiscus and spirulina showed antioxidant action in OxHLIA/TBARS assays. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • A method for the full utilization of Limnospira maxima biomass is described. • This strategy combines sodium hydroxide and urea to extract 85.4 % of total proteins. • The supernatant and protein extract from defatted fraction of pellets are collected. • This is an efficient, and non-toxic protein recovery platform. With an increasing global population, the demand for protein will place unprecedented pressure on protein production worldwide. The full utilization of microalgae biomass as a nutrient source based on the biorefinery concept remains challenging, especially with regard to protein isolation and extraction. Herein, we report a strategy combining sodium hydroxide and urea to extract nearly 85.4 % of the total proteins from the defatted fraction of pellets in a single step, recovering approximately 76.8 % (weight yield) of the total Limnospira maxima biomass through the process. The content of essential amino acids and of total amino acids was 32.1 % and 39.2 %, respectively. Both of them showed high water solubility. When the pH was 7.0, the water solubility of PE-SA and PE-DPA was 88.4 % and 86.2 %, respectively. Moreover, the two end products (PE-SA and PE-DPA) have different characteristics, which might be used in different food formulations. For instance, the PE-SA fraction contains a pigment protein (C-phycocyanin) that may be exploited as a natural blue colorant in functional beverages. Meanwhile, the PE-DPA fraction has a higher protein content, making it a potential protein resource in nutritional supplements or other plant protein-based foods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rapid measurement of morphological features of Spirulina microalgae filaments was achieved using image processing algorithms based on microscopy images of Spirulina filaments. Determination of the mid-line and vertices of Spirulina enable a condensed description of Spirulina filament. The mid-line of filament was represented by the skeleton of filament with the elimination of the side branches on the skeleton. The vertices of filament were determined based on discrete contour evolution algorithm. On the basis of this condensed description, morphological features can be rapidly and accurately measured, which include length, diameter of helix, width of filament and degree of spiralisation. The errors between manually obtained and automatic calculated values were 4.8% for length measurement, 4.7% for degree of spiralisation measurement, 5.6% for diameter of the helix measurement, and 6.2% for width of filament measurement, respectively. The overall results show that the proposed algorithms can rapidly and accurately measure the morphological features of Spirulina filaments. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: White shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei which had been immersed in seawater (35‰, pH 8.2) containing the hot-water extract of Spirulina platensis at 0 (control), 200, 400, and 600 mg L−1 for 3 h, were transferred to seawater at pH 6.8, and the immune parameters and transcripts of the lipopolysaccharide- and β-glucan-binding protein (LGBP), peroxinectin (PX), and integrin β (IB) were examined 6–96 h post-transfer. Shrimp with no exposure to the hot-water extract and no pH change served as the background control. Results indicated that the hyaline cells, granular cells (including semi-granular cells), total haemocyte count, phenoloxidase activity, respiratory burst, superoxide dismutase activity, glutathione peroxidase activity, and lysozyme activity of shrimp transferred to seawater at pH 6.8 significantly decreased to the lowest at 6 h post-transfer. These immune parameters of shrimp immersed in 600 mg L−1 of the extract were significantly higher than those of control shrimp at 24–96 h post-transfer, and had returned to the background values earlier at 48–72 h post-transfer with significant transcripts of LGBP, PX, and IB at 24, 6, and 24 h, respectively, whereas these parameters of control shrimp returned to the original values at ≥96 h post-transfer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: White shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei which had been injected with the hot-water extract of Spirulina platensis at 6, 10, and 20 μg g−1, or immersed in aerated seawater containing extract at 200, 400, and 600 mg L−1 were challenged with Vibrio alginolyticus at 1.5 × 106 or 1.4 × 106 colony-forming units (cfu) shrimp−1, and then placed in seawater. Survival rates of shrimp that received the extract of S. platensis at 6–20 μg g−1, and those of shrimp immersed in seawater containing the extract at 400 and 600 mg L−1 were significantly higher than those of control shrimp after 24–96 and 48–96 h, respectively. In a separate experiment, the hyaline cell (HC) count, granular cell (GC, including semi-granular cell) count, total haemocyte count (THC), phenoloxidase (PO) activity, respiratory burst (RB), superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity, and lysozyme activity were measured when shrimp were injected with the extract at 6, 10, and 20 μg g−1, and immersed in seawater containing the extract at 200, 400, and 600 mg L−1. These parameters directly increased with the concentration, and significantly increased when shrimp were immersed in the seawater containing the extract at 0.5–4 h. L. vannamei that received all doses of the extract via injection or via immersion all had increased phagocytic activity and clearance efficiency to V. alginolyticus at 12–72 h and 3–4 h, respectively. It was concluded that L. vannamei that received the hot-water extract of S. platensis had enhanced innate immunity and increased resistance against V. alginolyticus infection. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The recently reported crystal structures of the membrane-embedded proton-dependent c-ring rotors of a cyanobacterial F1Fo ATP synthase and a chloroplast F1Fo ATP synthase have provided new insights into the mechanism of this essential enzyme. While the overall features of these c-rings are similar, a discrepancy in the structure and hydrogen-bonding interaction network of the H+ sites suggests two distinct binding modes, potentially reflecting a mechanistic differentiation. Importantly, the conformation of the key glutamate side chain to which the proton binds is also altered. To investigate the nature of these differences, we use molecular dynamics simulations of both c-rings embedded in a phospholipid membrane. We observe that the structure of the c15 ring from Spirulina platensis is unequivocally stable within the simulation time. By contrast, the proposed structure of the H+ site in the chloroplast c14 ring changes rapidly and consistently into that reported for the c15 ring, indicating that the latter represents a common binding mode. To assess this hypothesis, we have remodeled the c14 ring by molecular replacement using the published structure factors. The resulting structure provides clear evidence in support of a common binding site conformation and is also considerably improved statistically. These findings, taken together with a sequence analysis of c-subunits in the ATP synthase family, indicate that the so-called proton-locked conformation observed in the c15 ring may be a common characteristic not only of light-driven systems such as chloroplasts and cyanobacteria but also of a selection of other bacterial species. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The activities of extracellular enzymes that initiate the microbial remineralization of high molecular weight organic matter were investigated in the water column and sandy surface sediments at two sites in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico. Six fluorescently labeled polysaccharides were hydrolyzed rapidly in the water column as well as in permeable sediments. This result contrasts with previous studies carried out in environments dominated by fine-grained muds, in which the spectrum of enzymes active in the water column is quite limited compared to that of the underlying sediments. Extracts of Spirulina, Isochrysis, and Thalassiosira were also used to measure hydrolysis rates in water from one of the sites. Rates of hydrolysis of the three plankton extracts were comparable to those of the purified polysaccharides. The broad spectrum and rapid rates of hydrolysis observed in the water column at both sites in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico may be due to the permeable nature of the sediments. Fluid flux through the sediments is sufficiently high that the entire 1.5m deep water column could filter though the sediments on timescales of a few days to two weeks. Movement of water through sediments may also transport dissolved enzymes from the sediment into the water column, enhancing the spectrum as well as the rate of water column enzymatic activities. Such interaction between the sediments and water column would permit water column microbial communities to access high molecular weight substrates that might otherwise remain unavailable as substrates. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The combination of cocoa powder and Spirulina sp. LEB-18 may favor the formulation of chocolate milk with functional property claim. Spray drying method was used to microencapsulate Spirulina sp. LEB-18 and incorporate it into the chocolate milk. The microalgae were microencapsulated with maltodextrin and soy lecithin, and three powdered chocolate milk formulations with different microencapsulated microalgae (MM) concentrations were developed (Fcontrol: 0%; F1: 5.0%; F2: 8.75%). The characterization of MM and formulations were performed by chemical, physical, physicochemical and sensory analysis. The incorporation of MM in chocolate milk presented an increase in protein content and reduced total lipids (Fcontrol:5.63; F1:3.74; F2:3.66). All samples analysed showed good suspension stability and low hygroscopicity (<10%)(0.75%, 0.82%, 3.04%, 1.05% and 1.66%). There was an increase of DPPH and phenolic compounds increasing 31 and 39% in the MM chocolate milk. Sensorially, the three formulations maintained the same mean for the consistency parameter (Fcontrol: 6.83; F1: 6.33; F2: 6.01), and a global impression that did not was rejected by the tasters, that are beginning to accept the incorporation of components in the elaboration of functional products. • The product development its enhanced nutritional and functional characteristics. • The microencapsulated can be used to improve the physicochemical properties of food products. • Through sensory analysis it is possible to incorporate the microencapsulated in different foods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Δ6-Desaturase (D6D) is a key enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of γ-linolenic acid (GLA), an essential polyunsaturated fatty acid. We report here the isolation and first functional characterization of the D6D gene promoter from Spirulina platensis C1. Functional analysis of this isolated promoter showed that the Spirulina promoter was functional in Escherichia coli. Site-specific mutation studies demonstrated that the −10 sequence (TATAAT), located at −33bp relative to the translation start site, was essential for D6D promoter function. Temperature responsive deletion analysis studies identified the minimal core promoter within the region −51 to +1, which was sufficient for basal D6D promoter activity, and several cold-shock responsive cis-acting elements with activating and repressing activity. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay and LC–MS/MS studies demonstrated that an ‘AT-rich Inverted Repeat’ (−192 to −164) served as a target-binding site for a transcriptional regulator (probably a member of the GntR family) from Spirulina. Western blot analysis studies revealed that the DNA-binding transcriptional regulator underwent phosphorylation after a temperature downshift and possibly associated with transcriptional regulation of D6D gene expression. Taken together, our results suggest complex regulation of D6D gene expression in Spirulina. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: We studied the effects of C-Phycocyanin (C-PC), a biliprotein from Spirulina platensis on the 2-acetylaminofluorene (2-AAF)-induced expression of MDR1, encoded by the multidrug resistance (MDR1) gene, in mouse macrophage cell line (RAW 264.7). Our experimental and In silico studies revealed a significant inhibition of 2-AAF-induced expression of MDR1 protein in C-PC treated mouse macrophage cell line. MDR1 induction by 2-AAF was dependent on ROS (reactive oxygen species)-Akt (protein kinase B)-NF-κB (Nuclear factor kappa B) signaling pathway. Generation of ROS, phosphorylation of Akt and corresponding nuclear translocation of NF-κB, the events that play a major role in the induction of MDR1 expression, were decreased significantly in C-PC treated cells. NADPH oxidase inhibitor, DPI (Diphenyl iodide), and pharmacological inhibitor of Akt, Akt inhibitor IV, also showed a reduction in MDR1 expression, although not to the same extent as C-PC mediated inhibition of MDR1 expression. To further understand the mechanism, we created a computational model of the detailed ROS-Akt-NF-κB pathway. C-PC was modeled purely as a ROS scavenger and this representation matched the experimental trends accurately. Also the ROS levels determined through In silico investigation showed that C-PC was more effective in reduction of MDR1 expression than inhibitors of NADPH oxidase and Akt. Our experimental and In silico studies collectively suggest that 2-AAF induces MDR1 by ROS dependent pathway and C-PC is a potential negative regulator of MDR1 expression. This down regulation of MDR1 expression, induced by xenobiotics such as 2-AAF, suggests C-PC’s usefulness in overcoming the drug resistance in cellular systems. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The use of microalgae to remediate raw effluent from brown crab aquaculture was evaluated by performing batch mode growth tests using separately the microalgae Chlorella vulgaris (Cv), Scenedesmus obliquus (Sc), Isochrysis galbana (Ig), Nannocloropsis salina (Ns), and Spirulina major (Sp). Removal efficiencies in batch growth were 100% for total nitrogen and total phosphorus for all microalgae. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) remediations were all above 72%. Biomass productivity varied from 20.9 mg L−1 day−1 (N. salina) to 146.4 mg L−1 day−1 (C. vulgaris). The two best performing algae were C. vulgaris and S. obliquus and they were tested in semi-continuous growth, reaching productivities of 879.8 mg L−1 day−1 and 811.7 mg L−1 day−1, respectively. The bioremediation of the effluent was tested with a transfer system consisting of three independent containers and compared with the use of a single container. The single container had the same capacity and received weekly the same volume of effluent as the three containers together. The remediation capacity of the 3 containers was much higher than the single one. The supplementation with NaNO 3 was tested to improve the nutrient removal microalgae' capacity, with positive results. The removal efficiencies were 100% for total nitrogen and total phosphorus and higher than 96% for COD. The obtained C. vulgaris and S. obliquus biomass were composed of 31 and 35% proteins, 6 and 8% lipids, 39 and 30% carbohydrates, respectively. The composition of these biomass suggest that it can be used as novel and sustainable ingredients in aquaculture feeds. The algal biomass of Cv and Sc were used as biostimulants in the germination of wheat and watercress, and very promising results were attained, with increases in the germination index for Cv and Sc of 175% and 48% in watercress and 84% and 98% in wheat, respectively. The biomasses of Cv and Sc were also subjected to a torrefaction process with 72.5 ± 1.7% char yields. The obtained biochars were tested as biostimulants for germination seeds (wheat and watercress) and as bio-adsorbent of dye solutions. [Display omitted] • Microalgae can bioremediate 10% of the total volume every 2 days. • Semi-continuous vs batch growth productivity (880 and 146 mgL−1d−1 at 36th and 22nd). • NaNO 3 supplementation improved COD remediation (Cv 90.3–97.7% and Sc 91.5–96.2%). • Chlorella vulgaris increased Germination index in 175% (watercress) and 84% (wheat). • Microalgae biochars adsorbed up to 63% of dye solutions without other treatments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marine green microalgae are a sustainable source of high-quality protein. However, due to their green pigmentation and composition of volatiles, their incorporation into food products is a challenge. Incorporation of cell-wall disrupted Tetraselmis chuii (Tc) into bread (0, 4, 8, 12 and 16% wheat flour substitution) affected dough rheology and bread quality negatively. These effects were more pronounced at addition levels necessary for a EFSA nutrition claim on protein enrichment (12 and 16%). Treatment of Tc with ethanol not only removed much of the green pigmentation and volatiles, but also reduced the negative impact on dough rheology and bread quality. Doughs prepared with ethanol treated Tc (TcEt) showed a clear improvement in dough rheology evident as increased dough-stability-time (DST), resistance to extension (Rmax) and elastic-recovery-compliance (Je) particularly at substitution levels >4%. This was accompanied by an increase in bread quality e.g. at 12% substitution level specific volume increased from 2.1 to 2.69 mL/g, crumb firmness decreased from 1358 to 297 g and slice brightness increased from 25.2 to 49.0. Ethanol treatment of algae may be a feasible strategy to address the sensory and structural challenges that hinder incorporation of algae into foods at levels that can potentially confer nutritional benefits. • Wheat flour replacement (12%) with Tetraselmis chuii (Tc) enables protein enrichment of bread. • Ethanol treatment of Tc enabled nutritionally relevant wheat flour substitution levels. • Ethanol treatment improved dough rheology and bread quality of Tc substituted breads. • The green colour and undesirable flavour of Tc were considerably improved by ethanol treatment. • Ethanol treatment has potential to improve the functional and sensory properties of other algae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to develop nutritionally enriched and sensorially well-accepted biscuits by incorporating spray-dried microencapsulated S. maxima biomass. Spirulina biomass presented high iron (49.8 mg/100 g) and protein contents (80.0%) with high biological value (chemical score > 99%). Spirulina biomass lipids presented high unsaturated/saturated fatty acids ratio (0.7) and a high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids (32.7%), with an emphasis on γ-linolenic acid (13.8%). No more than 10% of non-microencapsulated Spirulina biomass could be added to biscuits without sensorial loss. Upon spray-drying microencapsulation with octenyl succinic anhydride modified starch, addition of 20% of Spirulina biomass did not change biscuits sensory acceptance and purchase intent scores, with the exception of a 7% decrease in the appearance, probably because off-flavors were masked. The acceptance index for these biscuits was 79.2%, suggesting market potential. This technological approach led to the production of biscuits with 40% more proteins and that could have a claim as a nutritional source of iron (one portion equals to 16% and 35% of the RDA for premenopausal women and men, respectively). Considering its wide use and low cost, spray-drying encapsulation emerges as a successful strategy to employ microalgae for nutritional enrichment by the food industry. [Display omitted] • Spirulina biomass had very high protein contents (80%) of high biological value. • The biomass was also rich in iron (50 mg%) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (33%). • Upon microencapsulation, 20% of biomass was added to biscuits without sensory loss. • Biscuits added with microencapsulated Spirulina biomass had 40% more proteins. • Spirulina added biscuits are a nutritional source of iron (up to 35% of the RDA). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phycocyanin is a well-known bioactive pigment contained in cyanobacteria, such as Arthrospira platensis (commonly known as spirulina) , and used in the food and beverage industry. One of the main problems that affects spirulina-based bakery products is phycocyanin degradation during cooking, being this pigment extremely sensitive to heat. The main goal of this work was to evaluate the protective effect against phycocyanin degradation of extra virgin olive (EVO) oil or sunflower oil, by applying thermal treatments directly on A. platensis F&M-C256 biomass and on A. platensis F&M-C256-based "crostini", as well as on phycocyanin powder. After cooking, A. platensis F&M-C256 "crostini" incorporated with EVO or sunflower oil (10g oil/100g of dough) maintained about 90% of the phycocyanin originally present in the cyanobacterial biomass. When pure tocopherol was added to the biomass in the same amounts, a significant protective effect against phycocyanin degradation was observed. Tocopherol contained in EVO and sunflower oils is the putative main responsible for the protective action against phycocyanin degradation. Therefore, the incorporation of vegetable oils into the dough can be a useful tool for the food industries that use A. platensis biomass and/or phycocyanin as a natural food coloring and bioactive component for bakery products. • Phycocyanin degradation is affected by temperature and time during thermal treatment. • Vegetable oils protect phycocyanin during cooking in spirulina "crostini". • Tocopherol is the putative responsible for protecting phycocyanin against degradation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Arsenosugars and arsenobetaine are the major arsenic species found in seafood. • Inorganic As only detected in geoduck clam and spirulina of seafood samples tested. • Extractable hydrophilic As species account for more than 50 % of total As content. • Total As in wild-caught and aquacultured Coho Salmon is statistically insignificant. • DMA is a decomposition byproduct of AsSugars under acidic extraction conditions. Marine organisms are vital sources of staple and functional food but are also the major dietary route of human exposure to total arsenic. We surveyed the total arsenic content and the mass fractions of hydrophilic arsenic species from five different marine food types cutting across the food chain from microalgae, macroalgae, bivalve clam, crustaceans and finfish. Total arsenic was determined using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) while arsenic speciation analysis was performed using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled to ICP-MS as the detector. The total arsenic contents ranged from 133 ± 11 ng/g to 26,630 ± 520 ng/g. The mass fractions of inorganic arsenic (iAs), arsenobetaine (AsB), dimethylarsinic acid (DMA), and the four commonly occurring arsenosugars (AsSugars) are reported. Extractable hydrophilic arsenic species accounted for 10 % (aquacultured shrimp) to 95 % (kelp) of the total arsenic. DMA was established to be a byproduct of the decomposition of AsSugars in acid extracts of samples known to contain these species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]