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Tribal farmers in the Himalayas are vulnerable to climatic changes, as their rain-fed cultivation systems, practiced on steep, sloping terrain, are susceptible to changes in rainfall while at the same time being the primary means of livelihood. Soil and water conservation practices (SWCP) can improve the resilience of these cultivation systems to adverse climatic conditions. However, little is known about adaptation within these tribal farming communities. This is the first empirical study on the adaptation decisions of tribal farmers in the Himalayan uplands of Northeast India. Starting from the analysis of future climate risks, we surveyed 372 tribal farmers in Nagaland state to analyze perceived climate and environmental changes in relation to socio-demographic factors. We estimate current adoption rates of SWCP together with farmers' goals and values and employ a binary logit model (BLM) to quantify the influence of diverse factors on adaptation decisions. Our results show that increases in temperatures and crop diseases were the most perceived changes by tribal farmers. Climate projections indicate that precipitation amount and intensity, along with temperatures, will increase towards the end of the century, underlining the importance of SWCP. However, all considered SWCP were employed by less than half of the tribal farmers. Adoption probabilities for all practices were significantly increased when farmers participated in agricultural training. After that, participation in a civil society organization, livestock ownership, high-altitude locations, and perceived increases in droughts were found to increase adoption probabilities significantly, while socio-demographic factors were of only minor importance. If the most effective factor was employed to all farmers, average adoption rates of SWCP could at least double. Adoption decisions were mainly motivated by improving livelihoods, sustaining natural resources, reducing workload, and preserving cultural aspects of cultivation. This research contributes to understanding adaptation decisions of tribal farmers and quantifies the untapped potential for climate change adaptation of marginalized and climate-vulnerable farming communities in mountain regions. [Display omitted] • Most farmers observed rising temperatures and crop diseases and declining rains and yields. • Soil and water conservation practices (SWCP) are used by less than 50% of tribal farmers. • Exploiting unused adaptation potentials could double adoption rates of SWCP. • Agricultural training is the most influential factor for adaptation. • Improving livelihoods and conserving natural resources are farmers' major motivations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stocking rate and rangeland area are key variables to provide the livelihood of herders in different climatic zones. To evaluate the economic and ecological management of pastoral units, this study aims to determine the optimal economic size of pastoral units for livestock grazing use considering the ecological capacity of semi-arid rangelands in different climatic scenarios. Therefore, 12 pastoral units (an area of 47,355 ha) were selected in two climatic zones (summer and winter rangelands) in the Kalat region of Razavi Khorasan Province, Iran. By measuring forage production, carrying capacity was calculated. Based on the results, the costs of traditional livestock management in winter rangelands are higher than those of summer rangelands. Moreover, the current size of the assigned rangeland, especially the summer rangeland, is lower than that of the economic justification. The results emphasize that rangeland-based livestock husbandry cannot create a good livelihood for herders in the region, and it is necessary to pay special attention to other services and aspects, despite the existing ecological and socio-economic complexities. In this regard, providing multi-purpose rangeland use and useable technologies to better manage these areas is necessary to increase per capita household income and reduce the stocking rate in the region's rangelands. Ultimately, both increasing the level of available rangelands and reducing costs by applying new technology are required, as is the economic consideration of pastoral units by using rangelands for multiple purposes. • This study aimed to investigate economic assessment of pastoral units in different climatic zones. • Costs of traditional livestock management in winter rangeland are higher than those of summer rangeland. • The current size of the assigned rangeland is lower than that of the economic justification. • Rangeland-based livestock husbandry cannot create a good livelihood for herders in the region. • The ecological status of planned rangelands in terms of ecological indicators is better than unplanned ones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]