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We examined ribosomal RNA concerted evolution in an Epichloe¨ endophyte interspecific hybrid (Lp1) and its progenitors (Lp5 and E8). We show that the 5S rrn genes are organized as dispersed copies. Cloned 5S gene sequences revealed two subfamilies exhibiting 12% sequence divergence, with substitutions forming coevolving pairs that maintain secondary structure and presumably function. Observed sequence patterns are not fully consistent with either concerted or classical evolution. The 5S rrn genes are syntenic with the tandemly arranged rDNA genes, despite residing outside the rDNA arrays. We also examined rDNA concerted evolution. Lp1 has rDNA sequence from only one progenitor and contains multiple rDNA arrays. Using 5S rrn genes as chromosomal markers, we propose that interlocus homogenization has replaced all Lp5 rDNA sequence with E8 sequence in the hybrid. This interlocus homogenization appears to have been rapid and efficient and is the first demonstration of hybrid interlocus homogenization in the Fungi. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In order to survive and adapt to the environment, it is imperative for fungi to be able to sense and respond to changes in extracellular pH conditions. In ascomycetes, sensing of extracellular pH is mediated by the Pal pathway resulting in activation of the PacC transcription factor at alkaline pH. The role of PacC in regulating fungal virulence and pathogenicity has been described in several pathogenic fungi but to date not in a symbiotic fungus. Epichloë festucae is a biotrophic fungal endophyte that forms a stable mutualistic interaction with Lolium perenne . In this study, pacC deletion (Δ pacC ) and dominant active ( pacC C ) mutants were generated in order to study the cellular roles of PacC in E. festucae . Deletion of pacC resulted in increased sensitivity of the mutant to salt-stress but surprisingly did not affect the ability of the mutant to grow under alkaline pH conditions. Alkaline pH was observed to induce conidiation in wild-type E. festucae but not in the Δ pacC mutant. On the other hand the pacC C mutant had increased conidiation at neutral pH alone. Null pacC mutants had no effect on the symbiotic interaction with ryegrass plants whereas the pacC C mutant increased the tiller number. Examination of the growth of the pacC C mutant in the plant revealed the formation of aberrant convoluted hyphal structures and an increase in hyphal breakage, which are possible reasons for the altered host interaction phenotype. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Synthesis of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by specific NADPH oxidases (Nox) can serve both defense and differentiation signaling roles in animals and plants. Fungi have three subfamilies of NADPH oxidase. NoxA and NoxB have a structure very similar to the human gp91 phox . NoxC has in addition a Ca2+ binding motif as found in the human Nox5 and plant Rboh families of NADPH oxidases. A survey of fungal genomes identified up to four Nox genes in some fungal species, but Nox genes are absent from available genomes of the hemiascomycete yeasts, unicellular Basidiomycetes and Zygomycetes, reflecting the diversity of fungal life forms. Specific isoforms of Nox have been shown by genetic analysis to be required for various physiological processes and cellular differentiations, including development of sexual fruiting bodies, ascospore germination, hyphal defense, hyphal growth in both mutualistic and antagonistic plant–fungal interactions. This review provides an overview of our current knowledge of fungal NADPH oxidases, including Nox distribution in the fungal kingdom, Nox structure and regulation, and known biological functions of this important group of enzymes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Highlights • The E. festucae heterochromatin protein I regulates subtelomeric eas and ltm gene expression. • Deletion of hepA leads to derepression of eas and ltm genes in axenic culture. • HepA fails to localize to the nucleus in the Δ hepA mutant. • Just one third of genes differentially expressed in hepA in culture are upregulated. • Deletion of hepA has a dramatic effect on the plant host interaction phenotype. • Two thirds of genes differentially expressed in hepA in planta are upregulated. Abstract Epichloë festucae forms mutualistic symbiotic interactions with grasses of the Lolium and Festuca genera. Protection from insect and mammalian herbivory are the best-documented host benefits of these associations. The two main classes of anti-mammalian alkaloids synthesized by E. festucae are the ergot alkaloids and indole diterpenes, of which ergovaline and lolitrems are the principal terminal products. Synthesis of both metabolites require multiple gene products encoded by clusters of 11 genes located at the subtelomeric regions of chromosomes I and III respectively. These loci are essentially unexpressed in axenic culture but among the most highly expressed genes in planta. We show here that heterochromatin 1 protein (HepA) is an important component of the regulatory machinery that maintains these loci in a silent state in culture. Deletion of this gene led to derepression of eas and ltm gene expression under non-symbiotic culture conditions. Although there was no obvious culture phenotype, RNAseq analysis revealed that around 1000 genes were differentially expressed in the Δ hepA mutant compared to wild type with just one-third upregulated. Inoculation of the Δ hepA mutants into seedlings of Lolium perenne led to a severe host interaction phenotype characterized by a reduction in tiller length but an increase in tiller number. Hyphae within the leaves of these associations were much more abundant in the intercellular spaces of the leaves and aberrantly colonized the vascular bundles. This physiological change was accompanied by a dramatic change in the transcriptome with around 900 genes differentially expressed, with two thirds of these upregulated. This major physiological change was accompanied by a decrease in ltm gene expression and loss of the ability to synthesize lolitrems. These results show that HepA has an important role in controlling the chromatin state of these sub-telomeric secondary metabolite genes, including their symbiosis-specific regulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Filamentous ascomycetes produce complex multicellular structures during sexual reproduction. Little is known about the genetic pathways enabling the construction of such structures. Here, with a combination of classical and reverse genetic methods, as well as genetic mosaic and graft analyses, we identify and provide evidence for key roles for two genes during the formation of perithecia, the sexual fruiting bodies, of the filamentous fungus Podospora anserina . Data indicate that the proteins coded by these two genes function cell-non-autonomously and that their activity depends upon conserved cysteines, making them good candidate for being involved in the transmission of a reactive oxygen species (ROS) signal generated by the PaNox1 NADPH oxidase inside the maturing fruiting body towards the PaMpk1 MAP kinase, which is located inside the underlying mycelium, in which nutrients are stored. These data provide important new insights to our understanding of how fungi build multicellular structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Molecular probes were used to determine the cellular localization of PI[3]P, PI[3,5]P 2 , PI[4]P and PI[4,5]P 2 in hyphae of Epichloë festucae. • Deletion of tepA allowed PI[3,4,5]P 3 to accumulate to detect and localize using a molecular probe specific to this PI to cell septa of E. festucae. • Deletion of tepA in the pathogen Fusarium oxysporum disrupted chemotropism suggesting this lipid species may be important for host signalling. Phosphoinositides (PI) are essential components of eukaryotic membranes and function in a large number of signaling processes. While lipid second messengers are well studied in mammals and yeast, their role in filamentous fungi is poorly understood. We used fluorescent PI-binding molecular probes to localize the phosphorylated phosphatidylinositol species PI[3]P, PI[3,5]P 2 , PI[4]P and PI[4,5]P 2 in hyphae of the endophyte Epichloë festucae in axenic culture and during interaction with its grass host Lolium perenne. We also analysed the roles of the phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate 5-kinase MssD and the predicted phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-triphosphate 3-phosphatase TepA, a homolog of the mammalian tumour suppressor protein PTEN. Deletion of tepA in E. festucae and in the root-infecting tomato pathogen Fusarium oxysporum had no impact on growth in culture or the host interaction phenotype. However, this mutation did enable the detection of PI[3,4,5]P 3 in septa and mycelium of E. festucae and showed that TepA is required for chemotropism in F. oxysporum. The identification of PI[3,4,5]P 3 in Δ tepA strains suggests that filamentous fungi are able to generate PI[3,4,5]P 3 and that fungal PTEN homologs are functional lipid phosphatases. The F. oxysporum chemotropism defect suggests a conserved role of PTEN homologs in chemotaxis across protists, fungi and mammals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] NoxA and regulators are essential for polarized growth under starvation condition. [•] ROS negatively regulates asexual development of endophytic fungus. [•] NoxA and regulators are essential for hyphal fusion. [•] Nox and regulators have distinct or overlapping functions for hyphal morphogenesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: β-1,6-glucanases degrade the polysaccharide β-1,6-glucan, a cell wall component in some filamentous fungi. A single copy of a β-1,6-glucanase gene, designated gcnA, was identified in each of the grass endophytic fungi Neotyphodium lolii and Epichloë festucae. Phylogenetic analysis indicates that the GcnA protein is a member of glycosyl hydrolase family 5, and is closely related to fungal β-1,6-glucanases implicated in mycoparasitism. The E. festucae gcnA gene was expressed in mycelium grown in culture and in both vegetative and reproductive tissues of perennial ryegrass. A gcnA replacement mutant had reduced β-1,6-glucanase activity when grown in media containing pustulan as the major carbon source. β-1,6-glucanase activity was restored in the replacement mutant by introducing multiple copies of the gcnA gene. Growth of ΔgcnA and gcnA-overexpressing strains in vegetative grass tissues was indistinguishable from wild type strains. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Lolitrems are a structurally diverse group of indole-diterpene mycotoxins synthesized by Epichloë/Neotyphodium endophytes in association with Pooid grasses. Using suppression subtractive hybridization combined with chromosome walking, two clusters of genes for lolitrem biosynthesis were isolated from Neotyphodium lolii, a mutualistic endophyte of perennial ryegrass. The first cluster contains five genes, ltmP, ltmQ, ltmF, ltmC, and ltmB, four of which appear to be orthologues of functionally characterized genes from Penicillium paxilli. The second cluster contains two genes, ltmE and ltmJ, that appear to be unique to lolitrem biosynthesis. The two clusters are separated by a 16kb AT-rich sequence that includes two imperfect direct repeats. A previously isolated ltm cluster composed of ltmG, ltmM, and ltmK, is linked to these two new clusters by 35kb of AT-rich retrotransposon relic sequence. All 10 genes at this complex LTM locus were highly expressed in planta but expression was very low or undetectable in mycelia. ltmM and ltmC were shown to be functional orthologues of P. paxilli paxM and paxC, respectively. This work provides a genetic foundation for elucidating the metabolic grid responsible for the diversity of indole-diterpenes synthesized by N. lolii. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

An influential model of the neural mechanisms of creative thought suggests that creativity is manifested in the joint contributions of the Default Mode Network (DMN; a set of regions in the medial PFC, lateral and medial parietal cortex, and the medial temporal lobes) and the executive networks within the dorsolateral PFC. Several empirical reports have offered support for this model by showing that complex interactions between these brain systems account for individual differences in creative performance. The present study examined whether the engagement of these regions in idea generation is modulated by one's eminence in a creativity-related field. Twenty (n ​= ​20) healthy eminent creators from diverse fields of expertise and a 'smart' comparison group of sixteen (n ​= ​16) age- and education-matched non-eminent thinkers were administered a creative generation task (an adaptation of the Alternative Uses Task) and a control perceptual task, while undergoing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). The participants' verbal responses were recorded through a noise-canceling microphone and were later coded for fluency and accuracy. Behavioral and fMRI analyses revealed commonalities between groups, but also distinct patterns of activation in default mode and executive brain regions between the eminent and the non-eminent participants during creative thinking. We interpret these findings in the context of the well-documented contributions of these regions in the generation of creative ideas as modulated, in this study, by participants' creative eminence. • We examined neural differences in creative thinking between eminent and non-eminent thinkers. • Eminent creators from diverse fields were compared to a 'smart' control group. • Eminence was determined based on Creative Achievement Questionnaire scores. • There were no behavioral differences observed in creativity performance. • Eminent creators engaged more temporoparietal and less occipital and prefrontal areas than controls during creativity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nearly everyone has the ability for creative thought. Yet, certain individuals create works that propel their fields, challenge paradigms, and advance the world. What are the neurobiological factors that might underlie such prominent creative achievement? In this study, we focus on morphometric differences in brain structure between high creative achievers from diverse fields of expertise and a 'smart' comparison group of age-, intelligence-, and education-matched average creative achievers. Participants underwent a high-resolution structural brain imaging scan and completed a series of intelligence, creative thinking, personality, and creative achievement measures. We examined whether high and average creative achievers could be distinguished based on the relationship between morphometric brain measures (cortical area and thickness) and behavioral measures. Although participants' performance on the behavioral measures did not differ between the two groups aside from creative achievement, the relationship between posterior parietal cortex morphometry and creativity, intelligence, and personality measures depended on group membership. These results suggest that extraordinary creativity may be associated with measurable structural brain differences, especially within parietal cortex. • This is the first study to examine morphometric brain differences in highly creative individuals. • Highly-creative individuals from diverse fields were compared to intelligence-matched average-creative achievers. • High creative achievement was determined based on Creative Achievement Questionnaire scores. • There were no behavioral differences between the high- and average-achievement groups. • Posterior parietal cortex morphometry was related to creativity, intelligence, and personality based on group membership. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]