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Abstract: In adult rats, locomotor deficits following a contusive thoracic spinal cord injury (SCI) are caused primarily by white matter loss/dysfunction at the epicenter. This loss/dysfunction decreases descending input from the brain and cervical spinal cord, and decreases ascending signals in long propriospinal, spinocerebellar and somatosensory pathways, among many others. Predicting the long-term functional consequences of a contusive injury acutely, without knowledge of the injury severity is difficult due to the temporary flaccid paralysis and loss of reflexes that accompany spinal shock. It is now well known that recovery of high quality hindlimb stepping requires only 12–15% spared white matter at the epicenter, but that forelimb–hindlimb coordination and precision stepping (grid or horizontal ladder) require substantially more trans-contusion communication. In order to translate our understanding of the neural substrates for functional recovery in the rat to the clinical arena, common outcome measures and imaging modalities are required. In the current study we furthered the exploration of one of these approaches, diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging (DTI), a technique now used commonly to image the brain in clinical research but rarely used diagnostically or prognostically for spinal cord injury. In the adult rat model of SCI, we found that hyperacute (<3h post-injury) DTI of the lateral and ventral white matter at the injury epicenter was predictive of both electrophysiological and behavioral (locomotor) recovery at 4weeks post-injury, despite the presence of flaccid paralysis/spinal shock. Regions of white matter with a minimum axial diffusivity of 1.5μm2/ms at 3h were able to conduct action potentials at 4weeks, and axial diffusivity within the lateral funiculus was highly predictive of locomotor function at 4weeks. These observations suggest that acute DTI should be useful to provide functional predictions for spared white matter following contusive spinal cord injuries clinically. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Myelin damage, as seen in multiple sclerosis (MS) and other demyelinating diseases, impairs axonal conduction and can also be associated with axonal degeneration. Accurate assessments of these conditions may be highly beneficial in evaluating and selecting therapeutic strategies for patient management. Recently, an analytical approach examining diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) derived parameters has been proposed to assess the extent of axonal damage, demyelination, or both. The current study uses the well-characterized cuprizone model of experimental demyelination and remyelination of corpus callosum in mouse brain to evaluate the ability of DTI parameters to detect the progression of myelin degeneration and regeneration. Our results demonstrate that the extent of increased radial diffusivity reflects the severity of demyelination in corpus callosum of mouse brain affected by cuprizone treatment. Subsequently, radial diffusivity decreases with the progression of remyelination. Furthermore, radial diffusivity changes were specific to the time course of changes in myelin integrity as distinct from axonal injury, which was detected by βAPP immunostaining and shown to be most extensive prior to demyelination. Radial diffusivity offers a specific assessment of demyelination and remyelination, as distinct from acute axonal damage. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Using magnetic resonance diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), the present study investigates changes in both gray and white matter in the APPsw transgenic mouse (Tg2576), a model of β-amyloid plaque deposition associated with Alzheimer''s disease (AD). DTI analyses were performed in cross-sectional groups of transgene-positive and -negative mice at 8, 12, 16, and 18 months of age to assess the magnitude of water diffusion in gray matter (i.e., Tr(D)) and changes in diffusion in white matter that may be indicative of axonal degeneration (i.e., reduced water diffusion parallel to axonal tracts, λ‖) and myelin degradation (i.e., increased water diffusion perpendicular to axonal tracts, λ⊥). No appreciable changes in gray or white matter were observed between the APPsw and the age-matched control mice at 8 months of age. Reduced Tr(D) and λ‖ were observed in gray and white matter, respectively, for the APPsw mice at ages greater than 8 months, which coincides with the time period when appreciable amyloid plaque accumulation was confirmed by ex vivo histopathological studies. The decreases in λ‖ suggest the presence of axonal injury in multiple white matter tracts of APPsw mice. Unlike λ‖, λ⊥was unaltered between control and APPsw mice in most white matter tracts. However, in the corpus collosum (CC), λ⊥ increased at 16 and 18 months of age, suggesting the possibility of myelin damage in the CC at these later ages. This work demonstrates the potential for DTI as a noninvasive modality to detect evolving pathology associated with changes in tissue water diffusion properties in brain tissues. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Increasing evidence demonstrates that there is marked damage and dysfunction not only in the gray matter but also in the white matter in Alzheimer''s disease (AD). In this study, transgenic mice overexpressing β-amyloid precursor protein (APP) under control of the platelet-derived growth factor promoter (PDAPP mice) were examined using diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging (DTI) to evaluate the extent of white matter injury before and following the development of AD-like pathology. The profile of DTI parameters was significantly different in old PDAPP mice compared to that of old control mice following the development of AD-like pathology. No difference in DTI parameters was observed between the young PDAPP and control mice. Our results suggest that as amyloid β (Aβ) deposition and levels increase over time in PDAPP mice, these changes lead to primary or secondary white matter injury that can be detected by DTI. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Both axon and myelin degeneration have significant impact on the long-term disability of patients with white matter disorder. However, the clinical manifestations of the neurological dysfunction caused by white matter disorders are not sufficient to determine the origin of neurological deficits. A noninvasive biological marker capable of detecting and differentiating axon and myelin degeneration would be a significant addition to currently available tools. Directional diffusivities derived from diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) have been previously proposed by this group as potential biological markers to detect and differentiate axon and myelin degeneration. To further test the hypothesis that axial (λ&z.dfnc;) and radial (λ⊥) diffusivities reflect axon and myelin pathologies, respectively, the optic nerve was examined serially using DTI in a mouse model of retinal ischemia. A significant decrease of λ&z.dfnc;, the putative DTI axonal marker, was observed 3 days after ischemia without concurrently detectable changes in λ⊥, the putative myelin marker. This result is consistent with histological findings of significant axonal degeneration with no detectable demyelination at 3 days after ischemia. The elevation of λ⊥ observed 5 days after ischemia is consistent with histological findings of myelin degeneration at this time. These results support the hypothesis that λ&z.dfnc; and λ⊥ hold promise as specific markers of axonal and myelin injury, respectively, and, further, that the coexistence of axonal and myelin degeneration does not confound this utility. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Myelin loss and axonal damage are both observed in white matter injuries. Each may have significant impact on the long-term disability of patients. Currently, there does not exist a noninvasive biological marker that enables differentiation between myelin and axonal injury. We describe herein the use of magnetic resonance diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) to quantify the effect of dysmyelination on water directional diffusivities in brains of shiverer mice in vivo. The principal diffusion eigenvalues of eight axonal fiber tracts that can be identified with certainty on DTI maps were measured. The water diffusivity perpendicular to axonal fiber tracts, λ⊥, was significantly higher in shiverer mice compared with age-matched controls, reflecting the lack of myelin and the increased freedom of cross-fiber diffusion in white matter. The water diffusivity parallel to axonal fiber tracts, λ&par;, was not different, which is consistent with the presence of intact axons. It is clear that dysmyelination alone does not impact λ&par;. The presence of intact axons in the setting of incomplete myelination was confirmed by electron microscopy. Although further validation is still needed, our finding suggests that changes in λ⊥ and λ&par; may potentially be used to differentiate myelin loss versus axonal injury. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Non-invasive assessment of white-matter functionality in the nervous system would be a valuable basic neuroscience and clinical diagnostic tool. Using standard MRI techniques, a visual-stimulus-induced 27% decrease in the apparent diffusion coefficient of water perpendicular to the axonal fibers (ADC⊥) is demonstrated for C57BL/6 mouse optic nerve in vivo. No change in ADC|| (diffusion parallel to the optic nerve fibers) was observed during visual stimulation. The stimulus-induced changes are completely reversible. A possible vascular contribution was sought by carrying out the ADC⊥ measurements in hypercapnic mice with and without visual stimulus. Similar effects were seen in room-air-breathing and hypercapnic animals. The in vivo stimulus-induced ADC⊥ decreases are roughly similar to literature reports for ex vivo rat optic nerve preparations under conditions of osmotic swelling. The experimental results strongly suggest that osmotic after-effects of nerve impulses through the axonal fibers are responsible for the observed ADC decrease. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In vivo human optic nerve diffusion magnetic resonance imaging (dMRI) is technically challenging with two outstanding issues not yet well addressed: (i) non-linear optic nerve movement, independent of head motion, and (ii) effect from partial-volumed cerebrospinal fluid or interstitial fluid such as in edema. In this work, we developed a non-linear optic nerve registration algorithm for improved volume alignment in axial high resolution optic nerve dMRI. During eyes-closed dMRI data acquisition, optic nerve dMRI measurements by diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) with and without free water elimination (FWE), and by diffusion basis spectrum imaging (DBSI), as well as optic nerve motion, were characterized in healthy adults at various locations along the posterior-to-anterior dimension. Optic nerve DTI results showed consistent trends in microstructural parametric measurements along the posterior-to-anterior direction of the entire intraorbital optic nerve, while the anterior portion of the intraorbital optic nerve exhibited the largest spatial displacement. Multi-compartmental dMRI modeling, such as DTI with FWE or DBSI, was less subject to spatially dependent biases in diffusivity and anisotropy measurements in the optic nerve which corresponded to similar spatial distributions of the estimated fraction of isotropic diffusion components. DBSI results derived from our clinically feasible (∼10 min) optic nerve dMRI protocol in this study are consistent with those from small animal studies, which provides the basis for evaluating the utility of multi-compartmental dMRI modeling in characterizing coexisting pathophysiology in human optic neuropathies. Image 1 • Developed non-linear optic nerve dMRI alignment to address optic nerve motion. • DTI diffusivities increase quadratically from posterior to anterior optic nerve. • Increasing isotropic diffusion component(s) correspond to this spatial trend. • Multi-compartment dMRI modeling produced less spatially dependent diffusivities. • Advanced dMRI modeling is feasible on our short (∼10 min) optic nerve dMRI protocol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of extra-fiber structural and pathological components confounding diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) computation was quantitatively investigated using data generated by both Monte-Carlo simulations and tissue phantoms. Increased extent of vasogenic edema, by addition of various amount of gel to fixed normal mouse trigeminal nerves or by increasing non-restricted isotropic diffusion tensor components in Monte-Carlo simulations, significantly decreased fractional anisotropy (FA) and increased radial diffusivity, while less significantly increased axial diffusivity derived by DTI. Increased cellularity, mimicked by graded increase of the restricted isotropic diffusion tensor component in Monte-Carlo simulations, significantly decreased FA and axial diffusivity with limited impact on radial diffusivity derived by DTI. The MC simulation and tissue phantom data were also analyzed by the recently developed diffusion basis spectrum imaging (DBSI) to simultaneously distinguish and quantify the axon/myelin integrity and extra-fiber diffusion components. Results showed that increased cellularity or vasogenic edema did not affect the DBSI-derived fiber FA, axial or radial diffusivity. Importantly, the extent of extra-fiber cellularity and edema estimated by DBSI correlated with experimentally added gel and Monte-Carlo simulations. We also examined the feasibility of applying 25-direction diffusion encoding scheme for DBSI analysis on coherent white matter tracts. Results from both phantom experiments and simulations suggested that the 25-direction diffusion scheme provided comparable DBSI estimation of both fiber diffusion parameters and extra-fiber cellularity/edema extent as those by 99-direction scheme. An in vivo 25-direction DBSI analysis was performed on experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE, an animal model of human multiple sclerosis) optic nerve as an example to examine the validity of derived DBSI parameters with post-imaging immunohistochemistry verification. Results support that in vivo DBSI using 25-direction diffusion scheme correctly reflect the underlying axonal injury, demyelination, and inflammation of optic nerves in EAE mice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Optic neuritis is frequently the first symptom of multiple sclerosis (MS), an inflammatory demyelinating neurodegenerative disease. Impaired axonal transport has been considered as an early event of neurodegenerative diseases. However, few studies have assessed the integrity of axonal transport in MS or its animal models. We hypothesize that axonal transport impairment occurs at the onset of optic neuritis in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) mice. In this study, we employed manganese-enhanced MRI (MEMRI) to assess axonal transport in optic nerves in EAE mice at the onset of optic neuritis. Axonal transport was assessed as (a) optic nerve Mn 2 + accumulation rate (in % signal change/h) by measuring the rate of increased total optic nerve signal enhancement, and (b) Mn 2 + transport rate (in mm/h) by measuring the rate of change in optic nerve length enhanced by Mn 2 + . Compared to sham-treated healthy mice, Mn 2 + accumulation rate was significantly decreased by 19% and 38% for EAE mice with moderate and severe optic neuritis, respectively. The axonal transport rate of Mn 2 + was significantly decreased by 43% and 65% for EAE mice with moderate and severe optic neuritis, respectively. The degree of axonal transport deficit correlated with the extent of impaired visual function and diminished microtubule-associated tubulins, as well as the severity of inflammation, demyelination, and axonal injury at the onset of optic neuritis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Optic neuritis is a frequent and early symptom of multiple sclerosis (MS). Conventional magnetic resonance (MR) techniques provide means to assess multiple MS-related pathologies, including axonal injury, demyelination, and inflammation. A method to directly and non-invasively probe white-matter function could further elucidate the interplay of underlying pathologies and functional impairments. Previously, we demonstrated a significant 27% activation-associated decrease in the apparent diffusion coefficient of water perpendicular to the axonal fibers (ADC⊥) in normal C57BL/6 mouse optic nerve with visual stimulation using diffusion fMRI. Here we apply this approach to explore the relationship between visual acuity, optic nerve pathology, and diffusion fMRI in the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) mouse model of optic neuritis. Visual stimulation produced a significant 25% (vs. baseline) ADC⊥ decrease in sham EAE optic nerves, while only a 7% (vs. baseline) ADC⊥ decrease was seen in EAE mice with acute optic neuritis. The reduced activation-associated ADC⊥ response correlated with post-MRI immunohistochemistry determined pathologies (including inflammation, demyelination, and axonal injury). The negative correlation between activation-associated ADC⊥ response and visual acuity was also found when pooling EAE-affected and sham groups under our experimental criteria. Results suggest that reduction in diffusion fMRI directly reflects impaired axonal-activation in EAE mice with optic neuritis. Diffusion fMRI holds promise for directly gauging in vivo white-matter dysfunction or therapeutic responses in MS patients. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: We describe a cardiac gated high in-plane resolution axial human cervical spinal cord diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) protocol. Multiple steps were taken to optimize both image acquisition and image processing. The former includes slice-by-slice cardiac triggering and individually tiltable slices. The latter includes (i) iterative 2D retrospective motion correction, (ii) image intensity outlier detection to minimize the influence of physiological noise, (iii) a non-linear DTI estimation procedure incorporating non-negative eigenvalue priors, and (iv) tract-specific region-of-interest (ROI) identification based on an objective geometry reference. Using these strategies in combination, radial diffusivity (λ⊥) was reproducibly measured in white matter (WM) tracts (adjusted mean [95% confidence interval]=0.25 [0.22, 0.29] μm2/ms), lower than previously reported λ⊥ values in the in vivo human spinal cord DTI literature. Radial diffusivity and fractional anisotropy (FA) measured in WM varied from rostral to caudal as did mean translational motion, likely reflecting respiratory motion effect. Given the considerable sensitivity of DTI measurements to motion artifact, we believe outlier detection is indispensable in spinal cord diffusion imaging. We also recommend using a mixed-effects model to account for systematic measurement bias depending on cord segment. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Many brain diseases have been linked to abnormal oxygen metabolism and blood perfusion; nevertheless, there is still a lack of robust diagnostic tools for directly imaging cerebral metabolic rate of oxygen (CMRO2) and cerebral blood flow (CBF), as well as the oxygen extraction fraction (OEF) that reflects the balance between CMRO2 and CBF. This study employed the recently developed in vivo 17O MR spectroscopic imaging to simultaneously assess CMRO2, CBF and OEF in the brain using a preclinical middle cerebral arterial occlusion mouse model with a brief inhalation of 17O-labeled oxygen gas. The results demonstrated high sensitivity and reliability of the noninvasive 17O-MR approach for rapidly imaging CMRO2, CBF and OEF abnormalities in the ischemic cortex of the MCAO mouse brain. It was found that in the ischemic brain regions both CMRO2 and CBF were substantially lower than that of intact brain regions, even for the mildly damaged brain regions that were unable to be clearly identified by the conventional MRI. In contrast, OEF was higher in the MCAO affected brain regions. This study demonstrates a promising 17O MRI technique for imaging abnormal oxygen metabolism and perfusion in the diseased brain regions. This 17O MRI technique is advantageous because of its robustness, simplicity, noninvasiveness and reliability: features that are essential to potentially translate it to human patients for early diagnosis and monitoring of treatment efficacy. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Objective: Correlation of diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) with histochemical staining for demyelination and axonal damage in multiple sclerosis (MS) ex vivo human cervical spinal cords. Background: In MS, demyelination, axonal degeneration, and inflammation contribute to disease pathogenesis to variable degrees. Based upon in vivo animal studies with acute injury and histopathologic correlation, we hypothesized that DTI can differentiate between axonal and myelin pathologies within humans. Methods: DTI was performed at 4.7 T on 9 MS and 5 normal control fixed cervical spinal cord blocks following autopsy. Sections were then stained for Luxol fast blue (LFB), Bielschowsky silver, and hematoxylin and eosin (H&E). Regions of interest (ROIs) were graded semi-quantitatively as normal myelination, mild (<50%) demyelination, or moderate–severe (>50%) demyelination. Corresponding axonal counts were manually determined on Bielschowsky silver. ROIs were mapped to co-registered DTI parameter slices. DTI parameters evaluated included standard quantitative assessments of apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC), relative anisotropy (RA), axial diffusivity and radial diffusivity. Statistical correlations were made between histochemical gradings and DTI parameters using linear mixed models. Results: Within ROIs in MS subjects, increased radial diffusivity distinguished worsening severities of demyelination. Relative anisotropy was decreased in the setting of moderate–severe demyelination compared to normal areas and areas of mild demyelination. Radial diffusivity, ADC, and RA became increasingly altered within quartiles of worsening axonal counts. Axial diffusivity did not correlate with axonal density (p =0.091). Conclusions: Increased radial diffusivity can serve as a surrogate for demyelination. However, radial diffusivity was also altered with axon injury, suggesting that this measure is not pathologically specific within chronic human MS tissue. We propose that radial diffusivity can serve as a marker of overall tissue integrity within chronic MS lesions. This study provides pathologic foundation for on-going in vivo DTI studies in MS. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Wallerian degeneration plays a significant role in many central nervous system (CNS) diseases. Tracking the progression of Wallerian degeneration may provide better understanding of the evolution of many CNS diseases. In this study, a 28-day longitudinal in vivo DTI of optic nerve (ON) and optic tract (OT) was conducted to evaluate the temporal and spatial evolution of Wallerian degeneration resulting from the transient retinal ischemia. At 3–28 days after ischemia, ipsilateral ON and contralateral OT showed significant reduction in axial diffusivity (32–40% and 21–29% respectively) suggestive of axonal damage. Both ON and OT showed significant increase in radial diffusivity, 200–290% and 58–65% respectively, at 9–28 days suggestive of myelin damage. Immunohistochemistry of phosphorylated neurofilament (pNF) and myelin basic protein (MBP) was performed to assess axonal and myelin integrities validating the DTI findings. Both DTI and immunohistochemistry detected that transient retinal ischemia caused more severe damage to ON than to OT. The current results suggest that axial and radial diffusivities are capable of reflecting the severity of axonal and myelin damage in mice as assessed using immunohistochemistry. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In this study, axial (λ ||) and radial (λ ⊥) diffusivities derived from diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) were used to evaluate white matter injury in brains of mice affected by experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Sixteen female C57BL/6 mice were immunized with amino acids 35–55 of myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG35–55). Three months after immunization, optic nerve and tract were severely affected with 19% and 18% decrease in λ || respectively, suggesting the presence of axonal injury. In addition, a 156% and 86% increase in λ ⊥ was observed in optic nerve and tract respectively, suggestive of myelin injury. After in vivo DTI, mice were perfusion fixed and immunohistochemistry for the identification of myelin basic protein (MBP) and phosphorylated neurofilament (pNF) was performed to verify the presence of axonal and myelin injury. The present study demonstrated that the visual pathway is selectively affected in MOG35–55 induced murine EAE and these injuries are non-invasively detectable using λ || and λ ⊥. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Decreased axial (λ ||) and increased radial (λ ⊥) diffusivity have been shown to reflect axonal and myelin injury respectively. In the present study, evolving white matter injury within the optic nerves of mice with retinal ischemia was examined by in vivo and ex vivo measurements of λ || and λ ⊥. The results show that at 3 days after retinal ischemia, a 33% decrease in vivo and a 38% decrease ex vivo in λ || without change in λ ⊥ was observed in the injured optic nerve compared to the control, suggestive of axonal damage without myelin injury. At 14 days, both in vivo and ex vivo measured λ ⊥ increased significantly to 220–240% of the control level in the injured optic nerve suggestive of myelin damage. In contrast, the axonal injury that was clearly detected in vivo as a significantly decreased λ || (33% decrease) was not as clearly detected by ex vivo λ || (17% decrease). The current findings suggest that ex vivo λ ⊥ is comparable to in vivo λ ⊥ in detecting myelin injury. However, the structural changes resulting from axonal damage causing the decreased in vivo λ || may not be preserved ex vivo in the fixed tissues. Despite the accurate depiction of the pathology using λ || and λ ⊥ in vivo, the use of ex vivo λ || to extrapolate the status of axonal injury in vivo would require further investigation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In the current study, the feasibility and reproducibility of in vivo diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) of the spinal cord in normal mice are illustrated followed by its application to mice with experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE) to detect and differentiate axon and myelin damage. Axial diffusivity, describing water movement along the axonal fiber tract, in all regions of spinal cord white matter from EAE-affected C57BL/6 mice was significantly decreased compared to normal mice, whereas there was no statistically significant change in radial diffusivity, describing water movement across the fiber tract. Furthermore, a direct comparison between DTI and histology from a single mouse demonstrated a decrease in axial diffusivity that was supported by widespread staining of antibody against β-amyloid precursor protein. Regionally elevated radial diffusivity corresponded with locally diminished Luxol fast blue staining in the same tissue from the EAE mouse cord. Our findings suggest that axonal damage is more widespread than myelin damage in the spinal cord white matter of mice with EAE and that in vivo DTI may provide a sensitive and specific measure of white matter injury. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]