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Management scholars have noted that leader departures often foreshadow higher turnover intentions (or lower organizational attachment) of subordinates left behind, especially when relationships between the departing leader and subordinates (leadermember exchanges) have been high quality. In this article we posit that the quality of subordinates' relationships with all members of their relational system, not only their leader, must be considered to better understand how leader departures affect subordinates' organizational attachment. Our proposed relationships are illustrated in a theoretical model that includes phenomena at the individual level (i.e., a subordinate's identification with the departing leader and with his or her organization), group level (i.e., turnover contagion), and organizational level (i.e., organization-wide developmental climate). As such, we propose that elucidating how leader departures affect organizational attachment requires multilevel theorizing and constructs. We also discuss theoretical and practical implications of such a 360-degree relational perspective on leader-departure effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the joint effects of diversity composition (as manifested in faultline strength) and diversity management (as manifested in diversity climate) on loyal behavior. Using data gathered from a sample of 1,652 managerial employees in 76 work units, we assess the cross-level effects of unit-level relationship- and task-related faultline strength and diversity climate on individual-level loyal behavior of managerial employees. We find a negative relationship between gender faultline strength and loyal behavior, and a positive relationship between diversity climate and loyal behavior. In addition, we find that work unit diversity climate moderates the relationships between the strength of gender and function faultlines and loyal behavior; specifically, a supportive diversity climate reduces the negative consequences associated with relationship-related faultlines and increases the positive consequences associated with task-related faultlines. The results highlight the value of simultaneously considering faultlines and diversity climate in understanding and managing workforce diversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A recent theoretical proposal is that relational identification generalizes to organizational identification through affective, cognitive, and behavioral mediating mechanisms. The generalization process is strengthened when a relational other is prototypical-that is, is seen as promoting core organizational values. We investigate these propositions via two field studies. First, we find, via temporally lagged data from 186 newcomers to the telemarketing industry, that relational identification with a supervisor generalizes to organizational identification through affective (i.e., affect transfer), cognitive (i.e., social influence), and behavioral (i.e., behavioral "sensemaking") mediating mechanisms. Second, we find, via temporally lagged data from 1,101 newcomers to the U.S. Army, that a newcomer's relational identification with his/her supervisor generalizes to the newcomer's organizational identification, but only when the supervisor is perceived to be prototypical. Our combined findings suggest that (1) multiple identifications are more integrative than exclusive and (2) organizational membership may be more personalized and relational than previously assumed in extant research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To better understand the workplace commitments experienced by organizational members, we reconceptualize commitment to highlight its distinctiveness and improve its applicability across all workplace targets. We present a continuum of psychological bonds and reconceptualize commitment as a particular type of bond reflecting volitional dedication and responsibility for a target. We then present a process model applicable to any workplace target to bring clarity, consistency, and synergy to the research and management of workplace commitments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present research examines the within-person structure of job performance, with an emphasis on the relationship between organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) and counterproductive work behavior (CWB). We demonstrate, via two experience-sampling studies, that OCB and CWB are affect-driven phenomena that exhibit considerable within-person variation. Furthermore, as predicted, the within-person affective forces on OCB were independent of those on CWB--and the two phenomena were themselves independent. When directed at an organization (rather than a supervisor or coworkers), both were, however, related (within-person) to each other and to overall job performance. We discuss implications for the within-person performance structure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Researchers have assumed that employee support programs cultivate affective organizational commitment by enabling employees to receive support. Using multimethod data from a Fortune 500 retail company, we propose that these programs also strengthen commitment by enabling employees to give support. We find that giving strengthens affective organizational commitment through a "prosocial sensemaking" process in which employees interpret personal and company actions and identities as caring. We discuss theoretical implications for organizational programs, commitment, sensemaking and identity, and citizenship behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examine the relationships between bank branch employees' felt job stress, organizational commitment, job experience, and performance. Our findings are consistent with the attention view of stress. Employees with higher levels of affective commitment and higher levels of job experience channeled felt stress more effectively into sales performance. Felt stress had neutral to negative effects on performance for employees with lower levels of commitment and job experience. Commitment, like stress, was more strongly related to performance when employees had more job experience. The results suggest that consideration of moderators of the stress-performance relationship is important both theoretically and practically. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We used cultural self-representation theory to develop a model of the processes linking delegation to work outcomes. We tested this model with data from a sample of 171 subordinate-supervisor dyads from the People's Republic of China. Regression results revealed that organization-based self-esteem and perceived insider status fully mediated the influence of delegation on affective organizational commitment, task performance, and innovative behavior and partially mediated delegation's influence on job satisfaction. Furthermore, traditionality moderated the relationships between delegation and the mediators in such a way that the relationships were stronger for individuals lower rather than higher in traditionality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drawing on the compatibility principle in attitude theory, we propose that overall job attitude (job satisfaction and organizational commitment) provides increasingly powerful prediction of more integrative behavioral criteria (focal performance, contextual performance, lateness, absence, and turnover combined). The principle was sustained by a combination of meta-analysis and structural equations showing better fit of unified versus diversified models of meta-analytic correlations between those criteria. Overall job attitude strongly predicted a higher-order behavioral construct, defined as desirable contributions made to one's work role (r = .59). Time-lagged data also supported this unified, attitude-engagement model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We recommend the inclusion of "ideological currency" in the psychological contract perspective in order to broaden the range of employee-organization exchanges that the perspective can accommodate. We differentiate ideological currency from other forms of exchange currency and develop a model that articulates the conditions under which the breach and violation of ideology-infused psychological contracts will likely occur. We conclude by considering the opportunities and challenges implied by the inclusion of ideology in the psychological contract. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We develop theory specifying the role of ownership in the employment relationship and address how sharing in ownership's privileges can create convergent psychological contracts between workers and employers. We specify two factors limiting the attractiveness of ownership for some workers--that is, the potential for internal conflict among worker/owners transitioning to this dual role and the risks that ownership entails--and also outline a research agenda to investigate how allocating ownership to workers impacts their interests and those of managers and investors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examined how a blended workforce (one with "standard" and "nonstandard" workers in the same jobs) affected exit, "voice," and loyalty among standard employees. We found that workforce blending worsened relations between managers and employees, decreased standard employees' loyalty, and increased their interest both in leaving their organizations and in exercising voice through unionization. However, these effects were contingent on whether the nonstandard workers were temporary or contract and on the salary and responsibilities of the standard employees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using a poststructuralist view of managerial practice, we elaborate the notion of working appreciatively by focusing on the contested, emergent meaning of appreciation. We begin by articulating a set of concerns regarding the traditional treatment of appreciation within managerial practice and suggest that working with appreciation requires cultivating an appreciative spirit. An appreciative spirit is enhanced when managers develop (1) an appreciation for the life enhancing, (2) an appreciation of the connection between spirit and technique, and (3) an appreciation for reflexivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research on organizational citizenship behavior indicates that such behavior is critical for organizational effectiveness, but little theoretical work details how it might contribute to enhanced organizational functioning. Nahapiet and Ghoshal (1998) argue that a firm's social capital comprises a critical source of sustainable organizational advantage. Based on their work, we suggest that citizenship behaviors enhance firm functioning by contributing to the development of social capital in organizations; specifically, citizenship behaviors contribute to the creation of structural, relational, and cognitive forms of social capital. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present a model of employee decision making and behavior in which employees may sometimes decide to pursue learning and development activities, depending on personal values, leader-member exchange, perceived organisational support, self-efficacy for development, and credibility of information source. Within a three-dimensional "perceived beneficiary" system, employees may perceive these activities to benefit not only themselves but also (or alternatively) a supervisor and/or the organization. We show connections involving prosocial organizational behavior and organizational citizenship behavior and offer five propositions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new construct, entitled 'job embeddedness,' is introduced. It includes individuals' (1) links to other people, teams, and groups, (2) perceptions of their fit with job, organization, and community, and (3) what they say they would have to sacrifice if they left their jobs. We developed a measure of job embeddedness with two samples. The results show that job embeddedness predicts the key outcomes of both intent to leave and 'voluntary turnover' and explains significant incremental variance over and above job satisfaction, organizational commitment, job alternatives, and job search. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prior research reports of a weak commitment-performance relationship can be attributed to inconsistency in conceptualization and measurement of the constructs. In this study, the authors differentially relate attitudinal commitment to internal (organization and supervisor) and external (customer) foci to objective measures of job performance. Results suggest that both internal foci are related to organizationally rewarded job performance and that the external focus influences job performance relevant to and rewarded by customers. Implications of these findings are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using a field survey of 461 self-managing work team members in four countries, the authors examined: (1) whether employee resistance to such teams mediated the relationships between employee cultural values and job attitudes and (2) whether the value-resistance relationships were stronger in some countries than in others. Results show that resistance mediated the cultural value-job attitude relationships, sometimes fully and sometimes partially, depending on which type of resistance (to teams or to self-management) and which type of cultural value was being examined. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, routine task responsibilities and professional organization memberships had positive effects on the professional commitment of medical technologists in the first four years of their careers, but advanced professional research activities had a negative effect. The author obtained these results after controlling for a set of initial attitude, personal background, organizational context, and professional socialization variables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Through a quantitative meta-analysis of 40 studies of realistic job previews (RJPs), 26 of which were published, the effects of RJPs on attrition from the job recruitment process, the level and accuracy of initial job expectations, affective reactions, job performance, and turnover were assessed. In general, RJPs were related to higher performance and to lower attrition from the recruitment process, initial expectations, voluntary turnover, and all turnover. Moderating effects of the timing and medium of an RJP and of whether a study was conducted in the laboratory or the field indicated that the effectiveness of RJPs can be enhanced through properly matching RJP methods with the organizational outcomes of interest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this longitudinal field study, we used self-report data provided by business school graduates after four months and ten months on new jobs to assess (1) the effects of the six socialization tactics from Van Maanen and Schein's (1979) typology on newcomer adjustment and (2) refinements of existing measures of the investiture tactic and role innovation. Results indicate that the tactics, clustered into an institutionalized (vs. individualized) approach, were negatively related to attempted and actual role innovation, role ambiguity, role conflict, stress symptoms, and intentions to quit and positively related to job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and organizational identification. Self-appraised performance was associated with more individualized socialization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research has found that employee commitment and job performance are largely unrelated. However, prior work has not distinguished among individual foci (targets) and bases (motives) of commitment. We found, as expected, that commitment to supervisors was positively related to performance and was more strongly associated with performance than was commitment to organizations. Further, internalization of supervisors' and organizations' values was associated with performance but identification with these foci was not. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A model incorporating antecedents and outcomes of measures of manager-rated employee affective and continuance commitment was tested with 231 managers and 339 subordinates. Organizational citizenship behavior predicted manager-rated affective commitment, where-as side bets (age, tenure, and education) predicted manager-rated continuance commitment. Further, affective commitment was positively and continuance commitment negatively related to a variety of outcomes, including managerial potential and promotability. Implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the role of employees' financial requirements as a moderator of the relationship between their organizational commitment and performance. Hypotheses were tested on two samples of salespeople from different organizations. The results of hierarchical regression analysis indicated stronger relationships between organizational commitment and performance for those with low financial requirements than for those with high requirements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study developed and tested two rival views of how organizational commitment can be reconceptualized to accommodate both global organizational commitment and constituency-specific commitments. In the first view, organizational commitment is just one of many independent commitments; in the second, it is a key mediating construct. Results of structural equations modeling used to test the two competing views indicate that the key mediating construct model best represents the relationships between constituency-specific commitments, global organizational commitment, and important organizational outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study's premise is that ingratiation and organizational citizenship behaviors are similar but that supervisors will respond differently to employees depending on whether they label their extrarole behaviors as ingratiation or as organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). Variables based on Kelley's covariation model did not greatly influence supervisory attributions. The attribution of motive, however, was related to supervisory decisions on employee outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In an exploratory longitudinal study of business school alumni, we investigated changes in employment obligations as perceived by employees. During the first two years of employment, employees came to perceive that they owed less to their employers while seeing their employers as owing them more. An employer's failure to fulfill its commitments was found to be significantly associated with decline in some types of employee obligations. We discuss implications for managing employees' beliefs regarding obligations and for future research on psychological contracts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This meta-analysis examines whether differences in the lengths of time elapsed between the measurement of organizational commitment and departure interact with the career stages of employees in moderating the commitment-turnover relationship. For younger employees, the shorter the time separating the measurement of organizational commitment and the occurrence of departure, the stronger the correlations. The findings also show that the commitment measure used strongly affects the magnitude of the relationship. The findings are discussed in terms of their implications for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated differences in the psychological involvement and task assignments of labor-contractor and employee engineers and the effects of the contractors on the attitudes of their employee co-workers. Findings partly supported the hypothesis that supervisors shift interdependent tasks to employees when contractors are present in their work groups. However, employees were not found to have greater quasi-moral involvement than contractors. In addition, the presence of contractor co-workers was associated with employee reports of lower organizational trustworthiness, as expected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Structural equation modeling was used to evaluate the effects of three forms of attitudinal commitment on employee turnover. We used a traditional dichotomous measure of organizational departure but applied the PRELIS technique to resolve statistical problems. A test of eight competing versions of a turnover model using data collected from employees in an aerospace firm indicated that the forms of commitment affected turnover indirectly through a latent variable measuring withdrawal tendencies. The model including this variable resembles cognitive psychologists' descriptions of human mental processes that emphasize actors' general orientations and a lack of distinction making in everyday life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we tested a two-dimensional model of organizational commitment and theoretically relevant outcomes based on the motivational distinction proposed by March and Simon (1958) between employees' decisions to participate and to produce. We conducted a longitudinal field study involving 288 employees of a financial services organization. Confirmatory factor analyses support the proposed distinction. Commitment leading to participation was called "continuance commitment", and that leading to production, "value commitment." Analyses of correlations and partial correlations show that turnover is more strongly related to continuance than to value commitment and that performance is more strongly related to value commitment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study involved analyses of incidents described from the perspective of the targets of influence attempts. We coded influence behavior in the incidents into nine tactics and classified outcomes as commitment, compliance, or resistance. Hypotheses were developed to explain the outcome of each tactic used alone and in combination. The findings supported most of the hypotheses. The most effective tactics were inspirational appeals and consultation. The least effective were pressure, legitimating, and coalition tactics. Intermediate in effectiveness were rational persuasion, ingratiation, personal appeals, and exchange tactics. "Hard" tactics were generally less effective than "soft" tactics. The outcomes of tactic combinations depended mostly on the potency of the component tactics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Distributive justice was found to be a more important predictor of two personal outcomes, pay satisfaction and job satisfaction, than procedural justice, whereas the reverse was true for two organizational outcomes-organizational commitment and subordinate's evaluation of supervisor. However, procedural and distributive justice also interacted in predicting organizational outcomes. We discuss limitations of this study and directions for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined changes in union and organizational commitment after the implementation of a joint union-management quality-of-work- life (QWL) program. The results indicated that company commitment increased only when participants perceived the QWL effort as successful, but union commitment increased irrespective of the perception of QWL success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study of 321 American managers on international assignment in Pacific Rim or European countries assessed theoretically and empirically the extent to which various personal, job, organizational, and nonjob factors accounted for commitment to their parent companies and foreign operations. Regression analyses found both common and unique antecedent variables related to each target of organizational commitment; furthermore, discriminant analysis revealed patterns of dual and unilateral commitments based on specific job, organizational, and nonjob factors. The results reinforce the importance of nonjob factors to organizational commitment in international settings. Implications for research on commitment and human resource management are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research hypothesized that two social context conditions influence group members' evaluations of peer reporting of unethical behavior and their own inclination to report peers: the misconduct threatens the interests of group members and peer reporting is denned as a role responsibility of group members. Two scenario studies provided mixed support for the hypotheses, results differing in the two hypothetical settings. In both studies, however, when subjects perceived a peer reporter as highly ethical, they simultaneously evaluated him or her as unlikable. Results of a field survey provided some support for the generalizability of the findings to an actual work setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article brings together three current themes in organizational behavior: (1) a renewed interest in assessing person-situation interactional constructs, (2) the quantitative assessment of organizational culture, and (3) the application of "Q-sort," or template-matching, approaches to assessing person-situation interactions. Using longitudinal data from accountants and M.B.A. students and cross-sectional data from employees of government agencies and public accounting firms, we developed and validated an instrument for assessing person-organization fit, the Organizational Culture Profile (OCP). Results suggest that the dimensionality of individual preferences for organizational cultures and the existence of these cultures are interpretable. Further, person-organization fit predicts job satisfaction and organizational commitment a year after fit was measured and actual turnover after two years. This evidence attests to the importance of understanding the fit between individuals' preferences and organizational cultures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The impact of perceptions of volition, revocability, and publicness on behavioral commitment and the impact of behavioral commitment on employee tenure were examined in a group of 315 newly hired clerical employees. Results based on correlational and survival analyses tended to replicate prior research by O'Reilly and Caldwell by showing that behavioral commitment has a substantial impact on employee tenure and that there are relationships between behavioral commitment and perceived volition, publicness, and revocability. We also found support for an extended model of behavioral commitment based on significant relationships involving a number of hypothesized situational and individual difference precursors of volition, revocability, and publicness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this replication and extension of an earlier study, we found that newcomers' organizational socialization experiences were negatively related to role innovation after they had been on their jobs 6 and 12 months and positively related to organizational commitment after 6 months. Role innovation and commitment were negatively correlated at 6 months. Results suggest that organizations should be able to tailor newcomers' socialization experiences to foster a desired commitment- role orientation profile. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research assessed the causes and consequences of job insecurity using a new theory-based measure incorporating recent conceptual arguments. We also compared the measure's reliability and construct validity to those of two existing global measures of job insecurity. Results indicated that personal, job, and organizational realities associated with a perceived lack of control are correlated with measured job insecurity. Job insecurity in turn leads to attitudinal reactions- intentions to quit, reduced commitment, and reduced satisfaction. These results generally support the utility of our new measure and provide important directions for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We conducted a survey to examine the impact of distributive and procedural justice on the reactions of 217 employees to decisions about pay raises. Distributive justice accounted for more unique variance in satisfaction with pay than did procedural justice, but procedural justice accounted for more unique variance in two other measures of attitudes about the employing institution and its authorities, trust in supervisor and organizational commitment. We discuss what our results imply about the nature of justice in organizations and the distributive- procedural distinction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the effect of employee commitment on individuals' nonwork and career satisfactions. Data on public employees' attitudes indicated that the individual consequences of employee commitment are positive, supporting the notion that psychological attachment to a work organization yields personal benefits for individuals. These results contradict the notion that people necessarily pay a high personal price for high levels of employee commitment and caution against viewing psychological attachment as a zero-sum phenomenon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research offers a new theory predicting the effects of three exchange variables, job satisfaction, investment size, and quality of alternatives, on four general responses to dissatisfaction-exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect. Three studies designed to test model predictions received good support. High satisfaction and investment encouraged voice and loyalty and discouraged exit and neglect. Satisfaction and investment interacted, with variations in investment most strongly promoting voice given high satisfaction. Better alternatives encouraged exit and voice and discouraged loyalty. However, there was no link between alternatives and neglect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated commitment patterns among stewards and among rank-and-file union members. Stewards had a higher frequency of both dual and unilateral union commitment than did the rank and file. Positive union-management relations, high job satisfaction, and positive union decision-making practices were consistently related to high dual commitment. High union involvement, positive perceptions of union decision-making practices, and low job satisfaction were consistently related to unilateral union commitment. An explanation of the findings based on exchange theory is offered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study questions traditional assumptions linking organizational career assistance programs with increased employee satisfaction with and commitment to organizations. A model of individual career thinking is proposed in which a match between individual and organizational career plans is the primary determinant of satisfaction and remaining with an organization. Evidence from 266 individuals supports the influence of such matching and suggests revisions of the model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the loyalty of employees to their employers and to labor unions. According to the author, prior research into this matter fails to consider whether or not union membership is voluntary, as well as the varying levels of union commitment. The author notes that this study examines the level of employee commitment to a union, the level of commitment to an employer and the correlation of these two measures across three identified subgroups: union members, nonmembers who have never been members and nonmembers who have left the union.

In this article the authors discuss research they have conducted that examines the relationship between job satisfaction and organizational commitment. They briefly discuss the definitions of each concept, noting that satisfaction and commitment have been linked to employees' rates of absenteeism and turnover. They note that previous studies have indicated that one's level of satisfaction will determine their level of commitment; however, they assert that the opposite may be true and that finding the correct ordering of these variables has both theoretical and practical implications. They assert that if the correct ordering is found employers would better understand how to enact incentive programs to increase the commitment of their employees.

In this article the authors discuss research they conducted that was designed to develop a set of scales that determine empolyees' attitudes towards various work schedules. They hope that the creation of such a scale would help employeers determine the strenghts and weaknesses of their current work schedule and help them design the ideal work schedule for their organization. The authors note that work schedules have been shown to be related to job satisfaction, job stress, work motivation, job involvement and organizational commitment.

In 22 municipal bus companies, the extent of union members' dual commitment-to their unions and to their employing organizations- covaried with interorganizational differences in labor-management climates. Dual commitment was higher in cooperative climates than in less cooperative ones. The extent of members' participation in the union process moderated this relationship. It was relatively strong for more active participants and relatively weak for the less active. Separate organizational and union commitments also covaried with labor- management relationship climate but in a less monotonic manner than dual commitment did. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article the authors discuss research they conducted that examined social-desirability response bias in labor turnover research. They explain how they expected to find higher scores in areas where they believed social-desirability would distort self-report data such as organizational commitment, job satisfaction and attitude. Their reasoning for these beliefs were based in the notion that individuals who remained at their jobs most likely held beliefs such as good individuals make good career choices and therefore enjoy their jobs.