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The tumor suppressor gene p53 is activated by reactive oxygen species-generating agents. After activation, p53 migrates to mitochondria and nucleus, a response that eventually leads to apoptosis, but how the two events are related is unknown. Herein, we show that p53 translocation to mitochondria precedes its translocation to nucleus in JB6 skin epidermal cells treated with the tumor promoter 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA). Translocation of p53 to mitochondria occurs within 10 minutes after TPA application. In the mitochondria, p53 interacts with the primary antioxidant enzyme, manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD), consistent with the reduction of its superoxide scavenging activity, and a subsequent decrease of mitochondrial membrane potential. In contrast to the immediate action on mitochondria, p53 transcriptional activity in the nucleus increases at 1 hour following TPA application, accompanied by an increase in the levels of its target gene bax at 15 hours following TPA treatment. Activation of p53 transcriptional activity is preventable by application of a SOD mimetic (MnTE-2-PyP5+). Thus, p53 translocation to mitochondria and subsequent inactivation of MnSOD explains the observed mitochondrial dysfunction, which leads to transcription-dependent mechanisms of p53-induced apoptosis.

Studies in our laboratories showed that overexpression of manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) reduced tumor incidence in a multistage skin carcinogenesis mouse model. However, reduction of MnSOD by heterozygous knockout of the MnSOD gene (MnSOD KO) did not lead to an increase in tumor incidence, because a reduction of MnSOD enhanced both cell proliferation and apoptosis. The present study extends our previous studies in the MnSOD KO mice and shows that apoptosis in mouse epidermis occurred prior to cell proliferation (6 versus 24 hours) when treated with tumor promoter 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA). To investigate the possibility that a timed administration of SOD following apoptosis but before proliferation may lead to suppression of tumor incidence, we applied a SOD mimetic (MnTE-2-PyP(5+)) 12 hours after each TPA treatment. Biochemical studies showed that MnTE-2-PyP(5+) suppressed the level of protein carbonyls and reduced the activity of activator protein-1 and the level of proliferating cellular nuclear antigen, without reducing the activity of p53 or DNA fragmentation following TPA treatment. Histologic examination confirmed that MnTE-2-PyP(5+) suppressed mitosis without interfering with apoptosis. Remarkably, the incidence and multiplicity of skin tumors were reduced in mice that received MnTE-2-PyP(5+) before cell proliferation. These results show a novel strategy for an antioxidant approach to cancer intervention.