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A professional land surveyor practices a branch of the profession of engineering in which land surveying principles are used to determine, among other things, the position of any monument or reference point that marks a property line or boundary. The question that arises is whether licensure is required to perform what is termed "engineering land surveys?" In 2016, the Commonwealth Court of Pennsylvania decided a case of first impression that involved a nonsurveying company hired to locate fixed assets of a rural electric cooperative with the use of various tools including mapping grade global positioning system/geographic information system (GPS/GIS). In this case, the first of its kind in Pennsylvania, the court addressed the question whether or not locating a fixed point on the surface of the earth constituted a violation of licensing law. The court concluded that the mere fact of locating a point on the surface of the earth does not violate the registration law and that the law must be interpreted in light of the legislative intent of the statute requiring that sections of a statute be read together and construed in reference to the entire statute to give effect to all related provisions so as to not produce an absurd result. This paper will review the case of Southern Reprograhics [now Davey Resource Group (DRG)] in light of the appellate court's decision that DRG did not violate the Professional Registration Law of Pennsylvania by performing a contract to locate and inventory the assets of a rural electric cooperative. The Appellate Court reasoned that the mere fact of performing an engineering land survey by locating an asset on the surface of the earth did not rise to the level of a violation of the registration law. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A land surveyor makes accurate measurements using knowledge, physical dexterity, and properly calibrated equipment. All measurements contain errors, but the professional surveyor is mindful of the various sources and consciously works to minimize them based on experience and informed decision making. One such error source is the level vial, a standard component of numerous survey instruments and accessories. This paper derives expected miscentering error from a circular spirit level with an example using a global navigation satellite system (GNSS) range pole as commonly used for real-time kinematic positioning. We demonstrate that when the length of a 2-m, 40':2 mm, GNSS range pole is well known (σr= 1 mm) and the observer has a decent centering ability (σv= 1 mm), the most probable error magnitude for a single observation is 8 mm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Surveyors make measurements and process those data to compute positions. Plane surveying uses two-dimensional (2D) coordinates based on assumptions of a flat earth. Plats, maps, and land boundary descriptions are p repared consistent with those assumptions and many "local practice" clients are well-served. With these descriptions, the client is well served, and, over the years, many "local practice" businesses have functioned successfully. But, as technology advances and as the scope of a project o r service area gets larger, those flat earth assumptions become limiting, and plane surveyors are exposed to new challenges. Modem measurement systems, evolved during the digital revolution, now routinely collect 3D digital geospatial data. Similarly, computational processes now used in data reduction go well beyond the flat earth assumptions, and models for processing 3D digital geospatial data have evolved from flat earth models to various ellipsoidal models to a plethora of map projections to 3D models that support computations in 3D space worldwide, for example, the global spatial data model. This article includes a comparison of three models used to determine a 3D geodetic position based on a simple total-station side shot from a known station. The three methods are geodetic computation on the ellipsoid, state plane computation on a mapping grid, and geocentric computation in 3D space. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The first congressional ordinances prescribing rules for the Public Land Survey System (PLSS) did not require copies of field notes to be archived. Field notes are the record of the survey that shows the distances, witness trees, stream crossings, and other items of interest. Plats showing the survey results were created using the field notes. When a fire destroyed the office of the surveyor general of Alabama in 1827, all of the original land records for the state were lost. Plats and field notes of surveys in the northern district of Alabama were recovered, but the only copy of field notes for about 250 townships in the southern district were lost and could not be recovered. To reconstruct the field notes so that the original township and section corners could be located in the field, retracement surveys were executed under the direction of James H. Weakley, surveyor general of Alabama. Territorial papers of the United States, congressional records, state archives, and maps prepared by Weakley were among the sources used to examine how this situation developed, as well as how the retracement surveys were conducted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Major Thomas Freeman was the third Surveyor of Public Lands south of the State of Tennessee, responsible for surveying more than 300 townships in the Mississippi and Alabama Territories. Prior to this, he surveyed Indian boundary lines, laid out the City of Washington, and led an expedition similar to the Lewis and Clark expedition, among other things. For the territorial surveys, Freeman used correction lines run at 24 mile intervals to provide a framework that allowed subdivision of townships to begin several hundred miles from the Initial Point. Sections in the townships that close on these correction lines typically have north and south sides that substantially vary from the cardinal direction and standard distance, with areas commonly found to be less than half of the standard 640 acres. Freeman also postponed meandering rivers and streams, estimating the area of the fractional sections. In addition, he selectively surveyed townships, in whole and in part. Some entire townships were left unsurveyed, while more than 20 townships were only partially surveyed. These are some of the topics examined in this research that will be of interest to practicing surveyors and students of history. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Major Thomas Freeman was the third Surveyor of Public Lands south of the State of Tennessee, responsible for surveying more than 300 townships in the Mississippi and Alabama Territories. Prior to this, he surveyed Indian boundary lines, laid out the City of Washington, and led an expedition similar to the Lewis and Clark expedition, among other things. For the territorial surveys, Freeman used correction lines run at 24 mile intervals to provide a framework that allowed subdivision of townships to begin several hundred miles from the Initial Point. Sections in the townships that close on these correction lines typically have north and south sides that substantially vary from the cardinal direction and standard distance, with areas commonly found to be less than half of the standard 640 acres. Freeman also postponed meandering rivers and streams, estimating the area of tile fractional sections. In addition, he selectively surveyed townships, in whole and in part. Some entire townships were left unsurveyed, while more than 20 townships were only partially surveyed. These are some of the topics examined in this research that will be of interest to practicing surveyors and students of history. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geographic Information System (GIS) technology is rapidly evolving into a valuable tool for land surveying professionals. GIS surveying applications include land record databases, land use planning, and the compilation of historical mapping and aerial photography. A professional surveying project can include determining the location of a riparian or littoral boundary. This project shows how a professional land surveyor can utilize GIS software to solve a riparian boundary. The case study for this paper is the Lost River in Klamath County, Oregon. This research project includes historical survey data, maps, and aerial photography. The historical data are combined with current global navigation satellite system (GNSS) survey data and LiDAR imagery to solve the riparian boundary. Figure 1 shows the area of the case study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, five expeditions to the headwaters of the Mississippi River attempted to determine the global positions of important places and improve the accuracy of maps of the region. The surveyors who either led or accompanied these expeditions were David Thompson, Zebulon Pike, David Douglass, James Allen, and Joseph Nicollet. This article first outlines the methods of exploratory surveying used by these men, and then discusses each expedition with respect to three issues: the efforts, successful and unsuccessful, to accurately determine global positions, the support provided by knowledge from resident Native Americans and fur traders, and the political or strategic backgrounds to the expeditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A description of W.T. Henderson's 1821 rectangular survey system is Kentucky's only public lands survey system. This system is nearly identical to the final form now being used by the U.S. Bureau of Land Management. The Henderson survey has several problems such in the location of the base line and a need for standard parallels due to the large area surveyed (over 2000 square miles). Today few if any of the wood posts or replacements can be found in the 8 counties that now comprise the "Jackson Purchase" where Henderson did his surveying. Presently, surveyors use collateral evidence to connect to Henderson's system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes those aspects of the science and engineering of imaging which are relevant to the Surveying Profession. Since imagery in general, and earth imagery in particular, are ubiquitous in today's world many aspects of imagery should be known to the Surveyor. An outline is presented of those elements of imaging knowledge which should be known to varying degrees of thoroughness. A table explicitly conveys the level of competence needed by Surveyors in three categories of professional practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When performing an American Land Title Association--American Congress on Surveying and Mapping (ALTA--ACSM) field survey, professional land surveyors must meet a precision criterion based on error ellipses from least squares adjustments. A simulation of a least squares adjustment was performed on four lots of varied size commonly found in practice. An analysis of the feasibility of meeting the precision criterion was conducted. Based on this simulation, recommendations are given as to the type of equipment and field procedures required to attain the ALTA-ACSM precision criterion for these surveys. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author stresses the need of surveyors to pursue continuing education. He cites several ways that surveyors can become more knowledgeable. He mentions seminars as one of the most common formats to accomplish continuing education. Also presented is a table showing continuing education requirements for licensed surveyors. Iowa is said to be the first state to mandate continuing education for surveyors.

The advent of digitalization has brought revolutionary changes to the methods and instrumentation of surveying and it appears that the initial training and special qualities of the surveyor are no longer a precondition for the practice of surveying. Nowadays, many tools and techniques have been developed or improved upon for the acquisition of survey data with a high degree of accuracy, flexibility, simplicity, and cost reduction. This development poses new challenges for the traditional surveyor who needs to cope with the new trend. This paper discusses a very brief history of surveying. The innovations in surveying are discussed under the following headings: land surveying, remote sensing, hydrographic surveying, map-data processing, and data communication. Some important challenges facing the surveyor due to these innovations are highlighted. The paper also attempts to identify the responses surveyors could adopt. It is suggested in this paper that adaptive learning and retraining will help the modern surveyor but the best response will be "reprofessionalization". [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three-dimensional laser scanning is an advanced technology that uses latest laser measurement technique to obtain measurements at thousands of points per second. Land surveyors are adopting the technology because of the dramatic increase in productivity and relative ease of 3D presentation. Applications of terrestrial 3D laser scanning include topographic surveying, as-built surveying, facility management, 3D imaging and modeling, forensic investigation, environmental protection and restoration, historical preservation, and architectural design. A review of current two-year land surveying/geomatics programs around the country shows a lack of training opportunities for 3D laser scanning in community colleges. Recognizing the problem, the National Science Foundation's Advanced Technology Education program awarded a grant to Evergreen Valley College to develop a curriculum for implementation by EVC and other schools. The project involves surveying and engineering educators and professionals from several organizations. This paper presents a 3D laser scanning course developed as part of the NSF project. Issues related to the implementation of the course at Evergreen Valley College are discussed. Details about the lectures and laboratory activities are given. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author discusses the changes dealt by the Geographic Land Information Society (GLIS). He mentions that organization and its members have been affected by the 2009 economic downturn at varied levels of severity yet its impact on the profession in his region was evident. One of the first changes that the society undertook was the prioritization of the challenges and issues affecting it. He adds that in an effort to boost membership, state geographic information system (GIS) committee chairs have been encouraged to become GLIS affiliate members.

A topic of interest to many professionals is the form of deeds in existence and associated warranties that are integral to land conveyance. While conducting research, surveyors encounter various forms of deeds. It is always refreshing to understand the nuances that are associated with the language contained in deeds. In many jurisdictions there is no prescribed deed form that is to be used. It is the intent of this article to discuss form and content of deeds as well as the warranties that arise from land conveyances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (USDL 2006) predicts job openings for surveyors at nearly 3000 a year over the next ten years. An active vigorous effort aimed at successfully recruiting matriculated students to pursue a course of study in surveying may ensure adequate supply of highly skilled and qualified surveyors. Despite recent commendable efforts by the National Society of Professional Surveyors (NSPS) to give public exposure to the surveying profession, the general public remains largely uninformed about the work and skills of professional surveyors and their vital role in protecting the public good, which, in turn, constricts student recruitment. We report the results of several pilot studies conducted in the State of New Jersey of student enrolment in the Surveying Engineering Technology (SET) Program at the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT). In addition, we report a sample response of national perceptions on surveying careers from interviews conducted in northern New Jersey. This study examines how and why students chose surveying as a career path and then identify key elements of a recruitment model within the framework of vocational planning theory. A skeletal recruiting model is proposed, which takes into account factors shaping recruitment messages targeted at specific audiences, support for behavioral control, reinforcement of positive attitude, and stimuli in the student milieu. We recommend that the recruitment message include features of role models and effective communication style, and its language should be devoid of gender mainstreaming. High-tech surveying imagery should be used to further erode antiquated visions of mediocre surveying education and careers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Railroads are an integral part of the United States' infrastructure. From the early days of our Nation, railroads have played a part in the development of our economy and the Nation as a whole. Because so many railroads exist throughout the country, surveyors must be familiar with how they were originally placed. Most surveyors will, at one time or another, have to perform a survey that is affected by a previous railroad survey. This paper provides an overview of the history of the United States' railroad system, and then discusses the instruments and procedures used to map and lay out railroads. Finally, the methods of Calculating and laying out simple and spiral curves are described. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When man wanted to know where he was on this Earth, or what direction he was going, he looked up to the heavens. The stars are the key. Some appear to be fixed, while others revolve around them. By knowing the apparent places of these fundamental stars and making the appropriate measurements, position and azimuth can be determined. These ancient techniques are still used by surveyors today. In the mid-1960s, artillery surveyors stationed in Vietnam used solar and Polaris observations to establish a common grid for orienting the guns. The University of Akron student surveying team, who participated in the 9006 NSPS Student Surveying Competition, paid tribute to these brave soldiers by using the same equipment and procedures to determine an assigned azimuth. They did so wearing the uniforms of U.S. Army artillery surveyors of the Vietnam War. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This is the final paper in a four-part series examining the fundamental question, "What does the word height really mean?" The creation of this series was motivated by the National Geodetic Survey's (NGS) embarking on a height modernization program as a result of which NGS will publish measured ellipsoid heights and computed Helmert orthometric heights for vertical bench marks. Practicing surveyors will therefore encounter Helmert orthometric heights computed from Global Positioning System (GPS) ellipsoid heights and geoid heights determined from geoid models as their published vertical control coordinate, rather than adjusted orthometric heights determined by spirit leveling. It is our goal to explain the meanings of these terms in hopes of eliminating confusion and preventing mistakes that may arise over this change. The first paper in the series reviewed reference ellipsoids and mean sea level datums. The second paper reviewed the physics of heights culminating in a simple development of the geoid in order to explain why mean sea level stations are not all at the same orthometric height. The third paper introduced orthometric heights, geopotential numbers, dynamic heights, normal heights, and height systems. This fourth paper is composed of two sections. The first considers the stability of the geoid as a datum. The second is a review of current best practices for heights measured with the Global Positioning System (GPS), essentially taking the form of a commentary on NGS' guidelines for high-accuracy ellipsoid and orthometric height determination using GPS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This is the first paper in a four-part series considering the fundamental question, "what does the word height really mean?" National Geodetic Survey (NGS) is embarking on a height modernization program in which, in the future, it will not be necessary for NGS to create new or maintain old orthometric height benchmarks. In their stead, NGS will publish measured ellipsoid heights and computed Helmert orthometric heights for survey markers. Consequently, practicing surveyors will soon be confronted with coping with these changes and the differences between these types of height. Indeed, although "height'" is a commonly used word, an exact definition of it can be difficult to find. These articles will explore the various meanings of height as used in surveying and geodesy and present a precise definition that is based on the physics of gravitational potential, along with current best practices for using survey-grade GPS equipment for height measurement. Our goal is to review these basic concepts so that surveyors can avoid potential pitfalls that may be created by the new NGS height control era. The first paper reviews reference ellipsoids and mean sea level datums. The second paper reviews the physics of heights culminating in a simple development of the geoid and explains why mean sea level stations are not all at the same orthometric height. The third paper introduces geopotential numbers and dynamic heights, explains the correction needed to account for the non-parallelism of equipotential surfaces, and discusses how these corrections were used in NAVD 88. The fourth paper presents a review of current best practices for heights measured with GPS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Geographic and Land Information Society (GLIS) is the youngest and the smallest member organization of the American Congress on Surveying and Mapping (ACSM). The main goal of GLIS is to bridge the gap between traditional surveying and mapping professionals and the GIS community. In spite of its modest size, GLIS has had a considerable impact on both professional communities. The society was instrumental in bringing about the realization of the importance of surveying within the GIS community. The GIS community is becoming more aware of the importance of surveying to GIS, and of the importance of the surveyor's participation in GIS activities. One example of this recognition was the inclusion of surveying activities (spatial data compilation) as GIS professional experience in the Urban and Regional Information Systems Association's GIS certification criteria. The Geographic and Land Information Society is also making headway in making the surveying community more aware of the need to become involved in GIS, by promoting GIS activities in State Surveying Societies and by providing educational opportunities for surveyors at ACSM and other surveyors' conferences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The activities, accomplishments, and on-going efforts and goals of the National Society of Professional Surveyors (NSPS) on behalf of the surveying community are reviewed. Ranging from government affairs to educational programs, a broad stroke overview of NSPS in 2005-2006 is provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focuses on the use of statistics by land surveyors. Definition of statistics; Benefits of statistics to land surveyors; Mathematical formula for computing the standard deviation of one measurement; Method for checking the direction of an angle closure.

Business owners, managers, educators, and the leaders of the geomatics profession make decisions and mentor new members into the profession in the face of constant and unrelenting professional and social change. The scope of this change is bewildering as one realizes that adaptation is not only necessary in applying new technology to the workplace, but that the workplace is constantly in flux due to changes in the expectation of clients which are due to technological innovations. It is useful to construct a model of Geomatics as a profession in transition in order to explain observed phenomena in practice and in education. The model incorporates the dynamic of change in the Geomatics profession, and it is indexed to the responses of Alabama surveyors to a three-year series of annual questionnaires on recruitment, current challenges in the workplace, and the ten-year future of the profession. This model is used to provide the structure upon which to respond to common questions posed by members of the profession. One of these questions expresses concern that the four-year degree requirement for licensure will fail to provide the number of new members necessary to maintain the profession. In this paper I use the model to suggest the ideal objectives and structure of the four-year undergraduate degree curriculum in Geomatics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The demand for accurate spatial data with known error budgets is increasing with the increased use of GIS throughout all sectors of the economy. GIS users are beginning to see that with increased reliance on GIS data and information there is a corresponding increase in the risk and liability if the data are of unknown or dubious accuracy. This paper argues that the surveying profession has the education, skills, legal understanding, and experience to minimize these risks and liabilities. But are there enough surveyors to take on the extra demand for these new uses of spatial data? Evidence is emerging that the number of surveying professionals is declining while demand for surveying services is increasing. The shortage of professional surveyors presents challenges and opportunities for both GIS and surveying professionals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Provides information on the Ez-Adjust software package, a comprehensive least squares adjustment tool for the surveyors. Data entry features; Main components of the package, including adjustment of global positioning system observations; Significance of the software's geodetic calculator in surveying programs.

The purpose of this paper is to identify some of the factors that affect the practice of surveying and to look at the underlying issues, especially as related to surveying (geomatics) education. As witnessed by this author, the surveying profession has undergone a dramatic revolution during the past 30 years, and modern surveying practice involves the use of technology only dreamed of a generation ago. As the role of surveying continues to evolve, surveying educators, perhaps more than any other, have both the opportunity and an obligation to insure the continued viability of our profession. Learning from the past, acknowledging the present, and looking to the future, the importance of a college education and curriculum design issues are considered in terms of: • The historical interaction of surveying with engineering and other disciplines; • The range of surveying activities including both technical and professional; • The evolution of equipment and methods from transit/tape to GPS and computers. • The transition from analog to digital and from 2-D to 3-D; • Challenges and accomplishments with regard to ABET accreditation; • The NCEES exams and the 4-year degree requirement for licensure; • The broad scope of spatial data (geomatics) disciplines; and • The role of geomatics and the focus of education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Advances in GPS have outpaced the training infrastructure. To fill this void, surveyors are attending seminars or manufacturer-sponsored training courses. The courses do a satisfactory job at presenting fundamental concepts and foster basic proficiency with the particular manufacturer's receivers and software. Seminars, on the other hand, present no more than a general overview of theory. Sound theoretical principles cannot be taught in the short period of time allocated to either form of instruction. A detailed, mathematically based course of study is not possible via training courses or seminars: mainly because of time limitations, the mathematics powering the black box is either overly simplified or ignored. The University of Maine sponsors an Internet-based program--GPS Geodesy and Application Program (GPS-GAP)--which fills the need for mathematically rigorous courses of instruction for surveyors using GPS and other geodetic applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents a historical account of surveyor William Octavius Owen's living and surveying in Wyoming. Recovery and study of the Mastodon Bones section corners; Career background of Owen; Forts surveyed by Owen in Wyoming.

As geodetic surveying, land surveying, mapping, and other geospatial professions have moved further into the twenty-first century, the American Association for Geodetic Surveying (AAGS) has continued to meet the educational needs of those professions through the support of young surveyors and survey and GIS associations. Working with various governmental agencies, AAGS has helped to develop goals and procedures which will become part of the day-to-day use of the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) and the geodetic knowledge that GNSS users will require in the future. This paper discusses some of the programs facilitated by AAGS members over the past three years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The profession of surveying and positioning, and their related technologies and activities, are evolving at a staggering rate. Additionally, the tools and technology associated with positioning, once reserved for scientists and professional surveyors, are now widely available and utilized by many professional and non-professional disciplines. These disciplines can further be broken down into categories referred to as traditional and non-traditional users. This paper will discuss the past, present, and future role of the American Association for Geodetic Surveying (AAGS), highlighting activities which AAGS believes are critical to the future of positioning in the United States and to those using the technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The past is very important to surveyors for the successful completion of their jobs. But the connection between land surveying and history goes much deeper. Learning to "think historically" can yield a move accurate and a more just understanding of the surveying profession. Furthermore, knowledge of the past can not only give one a new perspective on one's job, but it can also begin to deepen one's personal experience of the present (symbolized in this article by a quilt and the rain), and make life so much richer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the open letter to the Professional State Surveying Societies from the American Association for Geodetic Surveying (AAGS) president Dr. Thomas Meyer concerning the affiliation agreement to all professional state society organizations. Topics include the disbandment of ACSM in 2011, to have a multiple national organizations for surveying professionals and the 1,500 participants who responded the online survey for the membership.

A calendar of 2016 conferences in the U.S. is presented including the Alabama Society of Professional Land Surveyors (ASPLS) Orange Beach Conference, 61th Annual Conference by the Florida Surveying & Mapping Society, and the Summer Conference by the Professional Surveyors Association of Nebraska.

This article provides a look at the current participation of ACSM in the International Federation of Surveyors (FIG). For reference, a previous article published in the June 2006 edition of the Surveying and Land Information Science journal detailed the historical aspects of ACSM participation in FIG and the ACSM structure and mission. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a brief history of the National Society of Professional Surveyors (NSPS) from 2006 to 2009. It recalls that the organization was created through the help of five members of the Land Surveys Division of the American Congress on Surveying and Mapping (ACSM). It adds that the stature and influence of the organization have been augmented by certain programs. The programs offered by the NSPS include the Certified Surveying Technician (CST) Program and an insurance program.

Recent changes to the governance structure of ACSM have resulted in some alterations in the character of ACSM's relationship with FIG. This article provides a historical perspective about ACSM, describes the nature of the governance changes and their impact on the ACSM/FIG relationship, and explains that the mission of ACSM remains unchanged. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses various reports published within the issue including one by Curt W. Sumner about the International Federation of Surveyors (FIG) forum and another by Greg Asher on the surveying activities of the U.S. Forest Service.

The article presents information on the American Congress on Surveying and Mapping (ACSM) International Federation of Surveyors (FIG) Forum and ACSM FIG delegation. Gratitude is expressed to Julian Rouch for his dedicated service as the head of the ACSM. ACSM is composed of four member organizations. The ACSM Fig Forum has two delegates from the participating member organizations.