Search

Only limited data on concentrations of trace elements in the blood of avian species have been published. This information can play an important role in the conservation of endangered species and their protection from environmental pollutants and can also be clinically relevant in managed individuals. Some elements are essential for the health of the animals in human care, but little is known about expected concentrations for some of these elements. Therefore, 21 elements (silver, arsenic, gold, barium, cadmium, cobalt, chromium, copper, iron, iodine, mercury, magnesium, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, platinum, antimony, selenium, thallium, vanadium, and zinc) were measured by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry in lithium-heparinized plasma samples from Humboldt penguins ( Spheniscus humboldti ) from a single zoological collection in Germany ( n = 39). The plasma concentrations of cadmium, nickel, platinum, antimony, and thallium were under the limit of detection in most of the analyzed samples. The results also showed that the females had significantly ( P ≤ 0.05) higher concentrations of silver, barium, cobalt, chromium, iron, mercury, magnesium, vanadium, and zinc in their plasma in comparison with males. A correlation between the element plasma concentration and the age of the individuals could not be found. The differences in plasma concentrations of individual element between males and females could be due to hormonal influences on the metabolism. Further studies in different seasons and other age groups are needed in the future to investigate environmental and host effects in more detail and to understand physiological mechanisms responsible for observed differences. more...

Acute phase proteins (APP) and protein electrophoresis (EPH) offer crucial insights into inflammation and overall health in various species. In this study, we validated serum amyloid A (SAA) and C-reactive protein (CRP) reagents for use with serum samples from gibbons (Hylobatidae, n = 50), spanning five species across four gibbon genera: eastern hoolock ( Hoolock leuconedys ), Javan ( Hylobates moloch ), pileated ( Hylobates pileatus ), siamang ( Symphalangus syndactylus ), and white-cheeked ( Nomascus leucogenys ). Preliminary reference intervals ( n = 50) were calculated for SAA (1.8-48.1 mg/L), CRP (0.1-11.1 mg/L), and EPH via capillary zone electrophoresis, in healthy gibbons. Comparing clinically normal ( n = 38) and abnormal ( n = 12) individuals, significant differences were observed in the albumin/globulin ratio ( P = 0.0003), prealbumin ( P = 0.0345), and albumin ( P = 0.0094), with abnormal individuals exhibiting statistically significantly higher γ-globulins ( P = 0.0224), SAA ( P = 0.0001), and CRP ( P = 0.0003). Despite significant chromosomal rearrangements among different gibbon species, we found no statistically significant differences of SAA and CRP levels across species. However, some differences between species were observed in EPH fractions. This study presents the first report of the evaluation of APP and EPH in gibbons, underscoring the potential use of these biomarkers in gibbon health monitoring. Further research with larger sample sizes of both normal and abnormal gibbons is recommended to solidify the clinical utility of these biomarkers in these species. more...

Protein electrophoresis (PEP) is an important tool in mammals to characterize specific dysproteinemias and detect acute and chronic inflammatory responses. In reptiles, PEP is the gold standard method for globulin fraction determination and albumin measurement. In this study, preliminary reference intervals were established for serum PEP in 22 clinically healthy adult Roti Island snake-necked turtles ( Chelodina mccordi ), a critically endangered species, kept in captivity and sampled over two monsoon seasons. The species has a prominent prealbumin fraction and β-globulins were the dominant globulin fraction. Significant differences between females and males were found in prealbumin ( P < 0.01), albumin ( P = 0.02), α1-globulin ( P = 0.05) and γ-globulin ( P = 0.01). Gravid females had significantly lower total protein ( P < 0.01), prealbumin ( P < 0.01), albumin ( P < 0.01) and albumin:globulin ratio ( P = 0.01). These preliminary reference intervals should aid in clinical investigation in this species as well as further research studies seeking to understand the application of PEP in reptilian species. more...

Leopard sharks ( Triakis semifasciata ) are temperate, Eastern Pacific elasmobranchs popular in public aquariums. Blood analysis is commonly used for assessing animal health, yet reference values have not been established for this species. This study analyzed T. semifasciata population data to characterize blood reference values for a collection of T. semifasciata housed at a public aquarium. Twenty-one captive leopard sharks were sampled. Blood was collected during annual health examinations from sedated animals. After collection, blood samples were anticoagulated with lithium heparin, and hematocrit and plasma biochemistry values were analyzed. The minimum-maximum ranges were hematocrit 11-31%, buffy coat 1-2%, glucose 4.94-9.38 mM/L, sodium 244-272 mM/L, potassium 3.7-5.5 mM/L, chloride 214-246 mM/L, aspartate aminotransferase 5-31 U/L, creatine kinase 36-1,136 U/L, calcium 3.65-3.95 mM/L, phosphorus 1.13-2.23 mM/L, total protein 21-38 g/L, and total CO 2 12-18 mM/L. The values identified will contribute to a better understanding of captive leopard shark physiology and to improved veterinary care for captive leopard sharks. Further research can examine the validity of machines like the Vetscan VS2, which will expand the resources available to care professionals. more...

The aim of this study was to objectively evaluate the biological variation of healthy Asian elephant ( Elephas maximus ) hematology and biochemistry parameters, therefore enabling evidence-based clinical decision-making to improve patient management. Ten clinically healthy elephants had blood samples collected weekly for 5 wk under standardized conditions. The analytical, between- and within-individual variation, index of individuality, and reference change values were calculated using previously reported methods. Large between-individual variation and small within-individual variation for almost all parameters indicated that individual normal values should be used for interpreting blood results from Asian elephants. more...

Pronghorn ( Antilocapra americana ) are native to western North America and are found in 24 Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA)-accredited institutions. Acute-phase proteins (APP) are a broad class of proteins that are stimulated in response to inflammation and have been shown to be a sensitive measure of inflammation in equids and ruminants. In this study, blood samples from clinically normal free-ranging and captive populations of pronghorn were analyzed using assays for protein electrophoresis (EPH) and APP, including serum amyloid A (SAA) and haptoglobin (HP), to develop preliminary ranges to gauge potential differences between these populations. Additional samples were taken from clinically abnormal captive pronghorn with facial abscesses. By EPH measurements, albumin: globulin ratio mean and SE were significantly different ( P <0.05) with 1.02 (0.08) for captive populations and 1.91 (0.05) for free-ranging populations. Total protein mean and SE were significantly different ( P <0.05) for captive and free-ranging populations, respectively 5.6 (0.3) g/dl and 6.9 (0.1) g/dl. Mean and SD of SAA for captive pronghorn were 1.4 (3.2) mg/L, and were significantly different from the free-ranging population, which was below the limits of detection for ( P <0.05). There was no difference in HP levels between these groups. In a case study of a pronghorn with facial abscesses, elevated levels of HP, but not SAA, suggested that HP maybe useful in certain disease states. Future studies should explore the use of these biomarkers as tools to monitor general health, prognosis, and subclinical disease. more...

Blood samples collected from captive Southern lechwes ( Kobus leche ) were used to develop reference intervals for complete blood count and serum biochemistry values. The study population consisted in 108 healthy individuals, including 62 females and 46 males and 38 neonates (<2 days old), 27 juveniles (2 mo to 2 yr old), and 43 adults (>2 yr old) from the Réserve Africaine de Sigean, Sigean, France, between 2014 and 2016. No significant effects of sex and season of sampling were found. No significant differences were found for all hematology and biochemistry parameters between juveniles and adults, and their results were then combined. Significant differences were found between animals >2 mo old and neonates for most tested parameters; in particular, neonates had lower hemoglobin, eosinophil count, alanine transaminase, and total protein values, but higher alkaline phosphatase values. The reference intervals obtained were similar to values previously reported for other Bovidae species. more...

This study assessed the in vitro temporal changes that occur in blood pH and lactate concentrations for an elasmobranch species and a chelonian species, as well as blood gases (partial pressures of carbon dioxide [pCO 2 ] and oxygen [pO 2 ]) for a chelonian species, with a portable clinical point-of-care analyzer. Blood samples were collected from 10 cownose rays ( Rhinoptera bonasus ) and 10 red-eared sliders ( Pseudemys scripta elegans ), stored on ice, and serially analyzed at six time points up to 90 min postcollection. Results indicate that analysis should be conducted as soon as possible after blood collection for these species, with immediate analysis being preferred. However, if analysis must be delayed, syringes may be capped, placed on ice, and analyzed at a later time. Analysis within 90 min provided clinically acceptable results for pH and lactate in both species and for pCO 2 in red-eared sliders, whereas substantial artifactual increases of pO 2 were seen in red-eared sliders. more...

The reference intervals of health parameters are valuable tools for veterinarians and conservationists to monitor the health status and viability of endangered species. Natural variation in the health of the long-lived Asian elephant ( Elephas maximus ) is poorly understood, particularly in relation to differences between males and females. Longitudinal health data were collected from clinical examination, hematology, and serum chemistry analyses over 3 yr from 227 healthy individually marked Asian elephants varying in age and sex. The study population was semicaptive and used in Myanmar's timber industry, but maintained natural feeding and breeding behavior. Body condition score (BCS) and blood pressure were investigated in clinical examinations. Hematological parameters included hematocrit, hemoglobin, total white blood cell count, and differential blood cell counts. Serum chemistry parameters included blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, total protein, albumin, globulins, aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, triglycerides, creatine kinase, glucose, calcium, potassium, sodium, and chloride. To the knowledge of the authors, this is the first description of BCS in an elephant population outside of zoos, and of blood pressure in this species using a novel adaptation of the Intelli Wrap Cuff pressure monitor. Several differences between the sexes were observed, with females generally having higher BCS and triglycerides, and males displaying higher alkaline phosphatase and glucose levels. This study provides important clinical tools that can be used to assess the health status and improve management in this endangered species. more...

The black-fronted piping-guan ( Aburria jacutinga ) is and an endangered cracid species and little is known about its health. Hematology allows researchers to assess the health and physiological status of a population, but, to our knowledge, reference intervals are not available in the literature for A. jacutinga . Thus, the present study aimed to determine the hematological reference intervals of 31 captive black-fronted pipingguan adults in the state of Paraná, Brazil. Blood samples were collected from brachial vein and stored in heparinized tubes to be processed. The red blood cell (RBC) and white blood cell (WBC) counts were performed in a hemocytometer, and hemoglobin (HGB) concentration was obtained by the spectrophotometric cyanmethemoglobin method; packed cell volume (PCV) was determined by microhematocrit technique, and the mean corpuscular volume (MCV) and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) were calculated according to a previously established formula. The heterophil : lymphocyte ratio was calculated by dividing the number of heterophils by the number of lymphocytes. Determination of the 95% reference intervals and 90% confidence intervals were performed in accordance with American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology guidelines using Reference Value Advisor (version 2.0). The results obtained were as follows: RBC, 1.4-2.8 × 10 6 /µl; PCV, 34.3-51.2%; HGB, 8.0-12.6 g/dl; MCV, 157.3-261.4 fl; MCHC, 22.0-26.7 g/dl; WBC, 2.3-33.1 × 10 3 /µl; heterophils, 12.1-16.3%, 0.5-14.4 × 10 3 /µl; lymphocytes, 19.8-69.0%, 1.4-16.4 × 10 3 /µl; monocytes, 0.7-17.3%, 0.1-2.8×10 3 /µl; eosinophils, 0.4-12.8%, 0.0-3.9 × 10 3 /µl; basophils, 0.8-12.0%, 0.0-1.9 × 10 3 /µl; and the heterophil : lymphocyte ratio, 0.2-3.0. The present study fills gaps in the literature on hematological values for A. jacutinga , which can be used to assess the health of the species populations. In addition, it contributed to establishing the health status of captive black-fronted piping-guans, indicating the possible welfare of the birds., (© 2019 by American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.) more...

Trace nutrients have been shown to play important health roles in both domestic and wild animals, but there has been little investigation into their values and effects in giant pandas ( Ailuropoda melanoleuca ). The goal of this study was to obtain serum vitamin and mineral values in a group of healthy, captive giant pandas ( n = 4). Twenty-seven samples were obtained from the group from 2008 to 2012. Serum analytes measured included retinol, α-tocopherol, hydroxyvitamin D, cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), selenium (Se), and zinc (Zn). The diet was evaluated for protein, fat, fiber, Ca, P, magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), sodium (Na), Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, and Mo. Comparison with other giant panda nutrient values were made. Further research with increased sample sizes and different populations are warranted., (© 2019 by American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.) more...

Ill and anorectic captive sharks present a unique challenge for husbandry and veterinary staff. Providing adequate fluid and nutritional support to sharks while minimizing handling remains difficult. This study aimed to evaluate the ability of a nutrient enema to alter blood analyte concentrations. Thirty-six healthy, fasted white-spotted bamboo sharks ( Chiloscyllium plagiosum ) were enrolled in the study with 18 sharks receiving a nutrient enema and 18 sharks receiving a non-nutrient saline enema. The metabolic state of sharks was evaluated via measurement of blood glucose, blood urea nitrogen, and β-hydroxybutyrate as well as other serum biochemistry parameters. Changes in sodium, chloride, calcium, β-hydroxybutyrate, glucose, total protein, and triglyceride concentrations were seen across time in both groups. Blood glucose absolute concentrations and changes over time differed between the nutrient and nonnutrient groups. This pilot study indicates that it is possible to influence the glucose metabolism of healthy sharks via nutrient enema. Further study is needed to better understand potential therapeutics for ill and anorectic sharks., (© 2019 by American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.) more...

Black rhinoceros ( Diceros bicornis spp.) are critically endangered species, with less than 65 individual animals housed in captivity within Association of Zoos and Aquariums-accredited zoos within the United States, and an estimated 5,500 individual animals of all subspecies surviving in the wild. Previously published reference values for circulating vitamin D 3 (25OHD 3 ; 55.7 ± 34.2 ng/ml) were based upon samples from free-ranging black rhinoceros in Africa. Recent research in human medicine has highlighted the importance of subclinical vitamin D deficiency, with links to increased risks for developing various health conditions. Serum samples collected opportunistically from two captive Eastern black rhinoceros ( Diceros bicornis michaeli) housed with seasonal access outdoors in a North American zoo were tested for 25-hydroxy-vitamin D (25OHD) levels over a 3-yr period. A commercially prepared pelleted diet containing vitamin D 3 was fed to both rhinos. This study correlates environmental ultraviolet (UV) index, dietary supplementation, and seasonal serum 25OHD levels to compare with known 25OHD 3 levels in free-ranging African black rhinoceros. Results in these two individuals suggest that D. bicornis spp. are dependent upon sunlight or UVB for measurable circulating 25OHD, and that current vitamin D 3 supplementation levels may have little effect for Diceros spp. in human care housed in northern latitudes. more...

Pangolins are one of the most-trafficked endangered species and are rare in zoologic collections. Blood gas and select biochemical analysis was performed on nine African white-bellied tree pangolins ( Phataginus tricuspis). Paired blood samples were collected from the ventral tail vasculature prior to (T1) and after 10 min (T2) of sevoflurane anesthesia, and selected blood gas and biochemical parameters were measured using a portable blood gas analyzer. Median (min-max) values for corrected venous blood were pH = 7.372 (7.207-7.529) at T1 and 7.278 (7.124-7.418) at T2. Corrected values were PCO 2 = 51.7 (29.6-69.0) mmHg at T1 and 58.431 (38.1-90.8) mmHg at T2. Clinicians should be aware that this species may hypoventilate while anesthetized with sevoflurane and develop a respiratory acidosis. Concomitant administration of respiratory depressants could compound this effect in a species where oro-tracheal intubation has not been described. more...

During this retrospective study, 18 plasma blood chemistry and 17 complete blood count (CBC) samples were analyzed from clinically healthy spotted eagle rays ( Aetobatus narinari) at Georgia Aquarium in order to generate hematological ranges for complete blood count (CBC) and biochemical profiles. Summary statistics were generated according to the American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology guidelines for the determination of reference intervals in veterinary species. 4 The mean packed cell volume (PCV) was 28.09% with a range of 23-35%. Mean total solids were 5.72 g/dl with a range of 5-7.0 g/dl. Lymphocytes were the dominant leukocyte observed on differential (67.35%), followed by fine eosinophilic granulocytes (FEGs) (15.41%), coarse eosinophilic granulocytes (CEGs) (10.24%), monocytes (1.88%), and basophils (1.24%). Chemistry samples were analyzed at two diagnostic laboratories, Michigan State University (MSU) and University of Miami (UMiami), and the results were compared. Both labs have the capacity to run blood chemistries on zoo and aquatic species, but utilize different methods to obtain chemistry analyte values. UMiami uses a thin-film dry-slide technology, whereas MSU uses an ion-selective electrode (ISE) and Beckman Coulter AU 640 analyzer. There is poor agreement between the analyzers used by the two laboratories for both alkaline phosphatase and BUN, because of proportional error. Establishing hematological ranges in spotted eagle rays and in elasmobranchs in general may enhance the understanding of the species and their health. This information may aid clinicians in deciding when and how to treat elasmobranchs. more...

Health evaluations were conducted on individuals ( n = 62, age < 1 to 11 yr) from a captive red panda ( Ailurus fulgens styani) population at the Chengdu Research Base for Giant Panda Breeding in Sichuan Province, People's Republic of China. Individuals were anesthetized using combinations of ketamine, dexmedetomidine, diazepam, isoflurane, and tiletamine/zolazepam. Whereas physical exams revealed no abnormalities for 40% of red pandas, 24% had dental abnormalities and 18% had orthopedic abnormalities. As the red panda is the only member of the family Ailuridae, complete blood count and serum biochemistry samples were collected and used to develop reference intervals for this species. When hematologic and serum chemistry values of male and female red pandas were compared within this A. f. styani population, males had higher mean cell hemoglobin, mean cell hemoglobin concentration, and blood urea nitrogen concentrations, whereas females had higher alkaline phosphatase, cholesterol, and iron. Adult red pandas (≥2 yr) had higher lymphocyte percentage, total protein, globulin, and chloride levels, whereas juveniles (<2 yr) had higher white blood cell concentrations, neutrophil percentage and absolute neutrophil values, alkaline phosphatase, creatine kinase, cholesterol, potassium, total and ionized calcium, and phosphorus levels. Reference values and expected age and sex differences will assist with health management of the captive A. f. styani population. more...

Iron overload disorder (IOD) can lead to organ dysfunction and may exacerbate other diseases in the critically endangered black rhinoceros ( Diceros bicornis). It is important to develop methods for monitoring the progression of iron storage (hemosiderosis), diagnosing the disease, and evaluating treatments in this species. Traditionally, an equine enzyme immunoassay (EIA) was used to measure rhinoceros ferritin, a serum protein correlated to iron stores. The goal of this study was to validate a rhinoceros-specific assay and investigate factors potentially associated with ferritin concentrations in black rhinoceros. A ferritin EIA developed for Sumatran rhinoceros was validated for black rhinoceros via Western blot analysis of liver ferritin and confirmed parallelism of serum samples to the EIA standard curve and used to analyze serum samples ( n = 943) collected from 36 black rhinoceros (<1-33 yr) at 14 U.S. institutions. Mean (±SEM) serum ferritin concentration was 6,738 ± 518 ng/ml (range: 85-168,451 ng/ml). Concentrations differed among individuals with eastern black rhinoceros (7,444 ± 1,130 ng/ml) having a higher mean ferritin than southern black rhinoceros (6,317 ± 505 ng/ml; P < 0.05) and higher mean values in wild-born (11,110 ± 1,111 ng/ml) than captive-born individuals (3,487 ± 293 ng/ml; P < 0.05). Ferritin concentrations did not differ between young rhinoceros (<5 yr old; 2,163 ± 254 ng/ml) and adults (7,623 ± 610 ng/ml) and were not correlated with age ( r = 0.143) or time in captivity ( r = 0.146, wild born; r = 0.104, all animals). Ferritin concentration was not impacted by sex (female: 2,086 ± 190 ng/ml; male: 8,684 ± 717 ng/ml), date, month, or season of collection ( P > 0.05). Data indicate ferritin concentrations are variable and not necessarily associated with IOD; ferritin is not recommended for diagnosing or monitoring IOD in black rhinoceros. more...

Increased glucocorticoids cause a characteristic stress leukogram in mammalian taxa. It is assumed that avians exhibit a similar response, but to date, there have been no controlled studies to correlate serial endogenous corticosterone levels to hematologic values. An established flock of 18 Hispaniolan Amazon parrots ( Amazona ventralis) was used as a model in a crossover study. The treatment group was subjected to the stress of transport, restraint, and common clinical procedures with serial blood samples collected at 20-min intervals for hematology and corticosterone levels; the control group was sampled at the same intervals. Longitudinal data analysis was performed with linear mixed modeling. For all hematologic analytes, the baseline value had a significant positive effect on subsequent values (all P < 0.001). The white blood cell, heterophil, and eosinophil counts and heterophil to lymphocyte ratio increased over time in the treatment group, whereas it remained stable in the control group ( P = 0.016, P < 0.001, P < 0.001, P = 0.02, respectively, for the time*treatment effect). Lymphocyte absolute counts decreased over time, although not significantly; the decrease was significant for the relative lymphocyte count in the treatment group. Monocytes and basophils were not significantly altered. The treatment group had a higher mean corticosterone level overall than the control group by approximately 60% ( P = 0.008). The mean corticosterone level also increased over time in both groups by three- to fourfold ( P < 0.001) by 20 min then plateaued. These results demonstrate that some significant hematologic changes may arise with routine handling and transportation of birds and should be accounted for in hematologic interpretation of cell counts. more...

The horned guan (Oreophasis derbianus) is an endangered species with small and seriously fragmented wild populations. Breeding efforts during the last decade have maintained a slowly increasing captive population with the potential to play an important role in the recovery of the species. Clinical hematology and biochemistries are powerful tools to diagnose and monitor diseases in captive birds. Therefore, establishing hematologic and plasma biochemistry reference values will improve the medical management of this species. This study determines the reference values for 9 hematologic and 15 plasma biochemical variables for 27 male and 12 female, apparently healthy, captive horned guans from three institutions. Differences related to age, sex, and husbandry were identified but were usually small and clinically insignificant. These results should improve veterinary care of captive individuals of this species and provide comparative data for other species of cracids. more...

Heavy metal toxicosis is a well-known phenomenon in wild, captive-animal, and domestic animal medicine. However, the occurrence among reptiles is not well documented. One reason for this is the lack of information regarding reference blood and tissue levels of heavy metals in reptiles. To determine normal blood lead, plasma zinc, and liver lead and zinc concentrations, blood and liver samples were collected from 4 adult and 16 juvenile, healthy green iguanas (Iguana iguana). Lead and zinc levels were measured using atomic absorption spectroscopy. Using the mean +/- two SD as the normal reference range, the present study suggests the following for captive common green iguana: 1) whole blood lead level: 0.06 +/- 0.06 microg/ml; 2) plasma zinc level: 2.68 +/- 1.66 microg/ml; 3) liver lead level (wet-weight basis): <1.0 +/- 0.0 microg/g; 4) liver lead level (dry-weight basis): <3.0 +/- 0.0 microg/g; 5) liver zinc level (wet-weight basis): 24.9 +/- 11.6 microg/g; and 6) liver zinc level (dry-weight basis): 83.4 +/- 44.6 microg/g. These values are fairly consistent with published reference levels in other mammalian and avian species. more...

Aspergillus spp. fungal infections are the most common cause of morbidity and mortality in captive penguins. Itraconazole has been the drug of choice for both therapeutic and prophylactic treatment; however, the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic parameters can be highly variable in different species, and it has not been evaluated in penguins. In this study, four preliminary steady-state trials were performed to compare two oral formulations of itraconazole (commercial capsules compared with generic bulk compounded powder) at two different dosages (6 or 12 mg/kg once a day) administered in fish to small groups of captive Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti). Building on this data, a final steady-state trial was performed with the use of a 7 mg/kg oral dosage twice a day of commercial capsules given in fish to a group of 15 penguins. With sparse sampling, blood was drawn for testing from small subsets of each treatment group at 4-7 time points in the 24-hr period after the final dose of itraconazole on day 14. Steady-state plasma concentrations of itraconazole and hydroxyitraconazole, the major metabolite, were determined by reverse phase high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. Treatment with the generic bulk compounded product resulted in plasma levels of itraconazole that were undetectable for 26 out of 30 blood samples, compared with seven out of 20 blood samples for the commercial product at the same dosage. On the basis of study results, an estimated oral dosage of either 8.5 mg/kg twice a day or 20 mg/kg once a day of the commercial itraconazole capsules given in fish would produce adequate steady-state therapeutic blood levels in Humboldt penguins. more...

Seventy-two serum samples were collected from 14 healthy African elephants (Loxodonta africana), including three calves, to test for 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] as well as for performing biochemical panels. Samples were collected between July 1997 and January 2008 to establish normal 25(OH)D values for the species and to examine the relationship of season and time on these values. Although the number of samples from the calves was small (n = 7), there was no statistically significant difference in the mean 25(OH)D levels between adults and calves (15.7 +/- 7.7 ng/ml versus 17.1 +/- 5.8 ng/ml, P > 0.05, respectively). The comparison of mean and individual values among seasons showed some variation, but was not statistically different; therefore, all values were combined for further analyses. The mean value of 25(OH)D for all samples was 15.8 +/- 7.5 ng/ml (n = 72), with a 95% confidence interval of 14.0-17.6 ng/ml. There did not appear to be a direct correlation between 25(OH)D levels and calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), or calcium:phosphorus ratio (Ca:P) based on regression analyses (P < 0.05). Values measured approximated normal distributions. Mean calcium value was 10.5 +/- 0.6 mg/dl (n = 61); mean phosphorus value was 5.2 +/- 0.8 mg/dl (n = 50); and mean Ca:P was 2.06 +/- 0.34. Since all animals appeared healthy during the course of sample collection, and bone density on foot radiographs was assessed as good, the results are considered to be normal for this herd. With the incidence of joint disease in older elephants, and metabolic bone disease in hand-reared calves, these values will provide a basis for further studies of calcium metabolism in elephants. more...

Hematology and serum biochemistry blood values are tabulated for Australia's most critically endangered mammal, the Gilbert's potoroo (Potorous gilbertii). Significant differences were found between origin (captive or wild individuals) and age (subadult or adult) of animals. Sex, and presence or absence of Treponema infection, had minimal significance on blood values. Typical cell morphology is discussed, and hemoparasite examination identified Theileria spp. and Breinlia spp. Eighty samples were collected from a population of only 35 individuals, reflective of a population census rather than of a study reliant on statistical extrapolation. These reference ranges and findings will assist in the ongoing health management of this critically endangered species. hematology, biochemistry, marsupial, Gilbert's potoroo, Potorous gilbertii. more...

The serum concentration of acute phase proteins (APPs) increases dramatically in response to inflammation and tissue injury. APPs are clinically useful in a range of domesticated mammals; however, knowledge is limited in nondomesticated mammals. The detective ability of two assays for each of three potential APPs--serum amyloid A (SAA), C-reactive protein (CRP), and haptoglobin (Hp)--was evaluated in eight species. For SAA, a turbidimetric immunoassay (TIA) demonstrated significant detective abilities in the Asian elephant (Elaphas maximus), impala (Aepyceros melampus), musk ox (Ovibos moschatus), and chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), as did an SAA enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in the impala. For CRP, both TIA and ELISA had significant detective abilities in the chimpanzee. For Hp, a colorimetric assay demonstrated significant detective abilities in impala, musk ox, sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekeii), and chimpanzee, as did the Hp ELISA in the impala, musk ox, and sitatunga. In conclusion, these results suggest that assays for detection of relevant APPs in several nondomesticated animals are available. more...

Serum concentrations of amino acids, fatty acids, lipoproteins, vitamins A and E, and minerals in zoo giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) were compared to values obtained from free-ranging giraffes in an effort to identify potential nutritional differences in the zoo population. Zoo giraffes have a specific set of maladies that may be nutritionally related, including peracute mortality, energy malnutrition, pancreatic disease, urolithiasis, hoof disease, and severe intestinal parasitism. Dietary requirements for giraffes are not known; invasive studies used with domestic animals cannot be performed on zoo animals. Though domestic animal standards are often used to evaluate nutritional health of exotic animals, they may not be the most appropriate standards to use. Serum samples from 20 zoo giraffes at 10 zoological institutions in the United States were compared to previously collected samples from 24 free-ranging giraffes in South Africa. Thirteen of the zoo animal samples were collected from animals trained for blood collection, and seven were banked samples obtained from a previous serum collection. Dietary information was also collected on each zoo giraffe; most zoo giraffe diets consisted of alfalfa-based pellets (acid detergent fiber-16), alfalfa hay, and browse in varying quantities. Differences between zoo and free-ranging giraffes, males and females, and adults and subadults were analyzed with the use of a 2 x 2 x 2 factorial and Fisher's Least Significant Difference (LSD) for mean separation. Of the 84 parameters measured, 54 (60%) were significantly different (P < or = 0.05) between zoo and free-ranging giraffes. Nine (11%) items were significantly different (P < or = 0.05) between adult and subadult animals. Only one parameter, sodium concentration, was found to be significantly different (P < or = 0.05) between genders. Further investigation in zoo giraffe diets is needed to address the differences seen in this study and the potentially related health problems. more...

Preliminary reference intervals for hematologic and total plasma protein profiles were determined for nine adult Red-capped parrots (Pionopsitta pileata) (six males and three females) and six Vinaceous Amazon parrots (Amazona vinacea) (two adult males, two adult females, one juvenile, and one nonsexed) from the Curitiba Zoo, Paraná, Brazil. For both Red-capped parrots and Vinaceous Amazon parrots, adult males had higher red blood cell counts than adult females. Regarding white blood cell distribution, differences due to gender were also found for both species of parrots. more...

The use of plasma as a life-saving tool for neonatal African elephants (Loxodonta africana) that failed passive transfer of immunoglobulins is proposed. The methodology of blood sampling, plasma extraction, and plasma storage is described. Values for cellular component sedimentation and biochemical parameters of extracted plasma that was collected from 2 female elephants is presented. The proposal for a central plasma bank for elephants in European zoos is suggested. more...

The white-footed tamarin (Saguinus leucopus) is an endangered primate that lives in a small forest corridor in northern Colombia, South America. Hematologic and serum biochemistry reference values are important tools in evaluating the health of the white-footed tamarin and serve to promote the survival of this species. The purpose of this study was to establish diagnostically important hematologic and serum biochemistry reference values for healthy white-footed tamarins and to determine whether there was significant variation with respect to age class (juveniles, adults), gender, and housing facility. Blood samples were collected for hematologic and serum biochemistry measurements from 29 wild-caught captive tamarins during February and April 2005, housed at three different facilities in central Colombia. Hematology and serum biochemistry values were similar in adults and juveniles. Female white-footed tamarins had absolute reticulocyte counts that were lower than those of male tamarins and males had lower serum chloride concentrations than female tamarins. Mean values for hemoglobin, mean cell hemoglobin, serum total protein, albumin, glucose, and alkaline phosphatase varied among the three housing facilities. Twenty-two of the 29 tamarins sampled were microfilaria-positive and had significantly higher mean serum alkaline phosphatase concentrations. Among the 29 tamarins sampled in this study, serum values for mean alkaline phosphatase and creatine kinase concentrations were higher than reported values for other mammals. The reference intervals determined in this study were comparable to normal ranges reported for other members of the family Callitrichidae. more...

Turtle populations are decreasing dramatically due to habitat loss and collection for the food and pet market. This study sought to determine hematologic values in two species of turtles to help assess health status of captive and wild populations. Blood samples were collected from 12 individuals of the Pascagoula map turtle (Graptemys gibbonsi) and seven individuals of the southeast Asian box turtle (Cuora amboinensis) from the Savannah River Ecology Laboratory (South Carolina, USA). The hematologic data included hematocrit, total solids, erythrocyte count, leukocyte count, and differential and percentage leukocyte counts. Low hematocrit values and high basophil counts were found in both species. The basophil was the most abundant leukocyte in the Pascagoula map turtle (median = 0.80 x 10(9)/L), whereas in the Southeast Asian box turtle the most abundant leukocyte was the heterophil (median = 2.06 x 10(9)/L). more...

Florida manatees (Trichechus manatus latirostris) are endangered aquatic mammals living in coastal and riverine waterways of Florida and adjacent states. Serum or plasma biochemical analyses are important tools in evaluating the health of free-ranging and captive manatees. The purpose of this study was to measure diagnostically important analytes in the plasma of healthy manatees and to determine whether there was significant variation with respect to location (free-ranging versus captive), age class (small calves, large calves, subadults, adults), and gender. No significant differences in plasma sodium, potassium, bilirubin, glucose, alanine aminotransferase, or creatine kinase were found among these classes of animals. Compared to free-ranging manatees, captive animals had significantly lower mean concentrations of plasma chloride, phosphate, magnesium, triglycerides, anion gap, and lactate. Captive manatees had significantly higher mean values of total CO2, calcium, urea, creatinine, alkaline phosphatase, gamma-glutamyltransferase, total protein, albumin, and albumin/globulin ratio than did free-ranging animals. Differences in the environments of these two groups, including diet, temperature, salinity, and stress, might account for some of these results. The higher plasma lactate and anion gap concentrations and lower total CO2 concentrations of free-ranging manatees were probably due to greater exertion during capture, but the lack of elevated plasma creatine kinase activity relative to captive animals indicates that there was no serious muscle injury associated with capture. Plasma phosphate decreased and total globulins increased with age. Plasma cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations were highest in small calves. Plasma aspartate aminotransferase was higher in large calves than in adults and subadults, and the albumin/ globulin ratio was higher in subadults than in adults. Plasma total CO2 was higher and chloride was slightly lower in females than in males. more...

The giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) is known to be susceptible to natural infection with canine distemper virus (CDV). Vaccination of giant pandas with conventional modified live CDV vaccines has been avoided due to the numerous carnivore species known to have become infected with CDV after vaccination. Serum-neutralizing antibodies to CDV were measured after s.c. and i.m. annual vaccination with a canarypox-vectored recombinant CDV vaccine in an adult male and female giant panda over the period of 2 yr. The vaccine proved to be safe, and serum-neutralizing antibody titers interpreted as protective against CDV disease were measured in each animal. more...

Hematologic characteristics and plasma chemistry values of juvenile loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) from the ages of 1 mo to 3 yr were obtained to establish baseline values. Five clinically normal loggerhead turtles were selected from the same clutch and raised in an indoor artificial nesting beach. Blood samples were successively collected and examined for various blood characteristics for a maximum total of 15 times. Hematologic characteristics, including packed cell volume, white blood cell counts, and white blood cell differentials; and plasma chemistry values, including total bilirubin, total protein, albumin, glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase, glutamic pyruvic transaminase, gamma-glutamic transpeptidase, creatinine, blood urea nitrogen, uric acid, alkaline phosphatase, amylase, triglyceride, total cholesterol, ionized sodium, ionized potassium and ionized chlorine, were measured. These results were used to establish a hematology and blood chemistry baseline for captive juvenile loggerhead turtles and will aid in their medical management. more...

Cholesterol concentrations in captive gorillas and orangutans vary widely within species and average approximately 244 mg/dl for gorillas and 169 mg/dl for orangutans as published previously. The International Species Inventory System reports higher concentrations of 275 and 199 mg/dl for gorillas and orangutans, respectively. It is unknown whether these values were typical, influenced by captive management, or both. To answer this question, banked serum samples from free-ranging mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei), western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla), and Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) were analyzed for total cholesterol, triglyceride, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations. Mountain gorillas did not differ significantly from free-ranging western lowland gorillas in cholesterol, triglyceride, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, or low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations, indicating mountain gorilla values could be a model for western lowland gorillas. Captive gorilla total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than in free-ranging groups. Triglyceride concentrations for captive gorillas were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than the male mountain and western lowland gorillas, but they were not significantly different from the female mountain gorillas. Captive orangutan total cholesterol concentrations were only higher (P < 0.05) than the free-ranging female orangutans, whereas captive orangutan low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than both free-ranging male and female orangutans. Calculated and measured low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations were compared for all free-ranging animals and were significantly different (P < 0.05) for all groups, indicating Friedewald's equation for calculating low-density lipoprotein cholesterol is not appropriate for use with nonfasted apes. The higher total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations in captive apes may predispose them to cardiovascular disease and might be attributed to diets, limited energy expenditure, and genetics. more...

Heparinized whole-blood samples from 22 adult African lions (Panthera leo) fed diets considered nutritionally adequate in 10 American Zoo and Aquarium Association member zoos in North America were provided for this study. Blood thiamine values were estimated using a standard microbiological assay method. The mean +/- standard deviation for blood thiamine values was 249.3 +/- 43.5 nmol/L with a range in values from 160 to 350 nmol/L after exclusion of one outlier. There were no differences (P > 0.05) in the mean blood thiamine values of male and female lions, or of lions that were over and under 10 yr of age. This range (160 to 350 nmol/L) is proposed as a reasonable estimate of the expected range in blood thiamine values for captive adult African lions as currently fed in North American zoos. more...

A study of 10 clinical pathology values in four groups of Andean flamingo chicks (Phoenicoparrus andinus) was conducted to evaluate an artificial feeding program in Chile. Three groups were fed controlled diets (groups 2000, 2001, and 2002) with quantitative differences in their nutritional content. A fourth group of free-living Andean flamingo chicks was used as normal controls. Nutritional management techniques used in 2002 resulted in hematologic values with similar levels of total protein, globulins, albumin, cholesterol, urea, phosphorus, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), creatinine, and calcium to those obtained in free-living chicks. In addition, final weight, physical condition, and plumage in flamingo chicks of group 2002 were considered satisfactory to face local climatic conditions and nomadic activity. These results may be useful as reference values and help to improve conservation management and veterinary care of this species. more...

Calcidiol (25-hydroxyvitamin D) values are reported for 22 wild Ricord's iguanas (Cyclura ricordii) and seven wild rhinoceros iguanas (Cyclura cornuta cornuta). Calcitriol (1,25-hydroxyvitamin D) values are reported for 12 wild Ricord's iguanas and seven wild rhinoceros iguanas. These animals were captured as part of a larger health assessment study being conducted on Ricord's iguanas in Isla Cabritos National Park, Dominican Republic. A total of 13 captive rhinoceros iguanas held outdoors at Parque Zoológico Nacional were also sampled for comparison. Mean concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D were 554 nmol/L (222 ng/ml) with a range of 250-1,118 nmol/L (100-448 ng/ml) for wild Ricord's iguanas, 332 nmol/L (133 ng/ml) with a range of 260-369 nmol/L (104-148 ng/ml) for wild rhinoceros iguanas, and 317 nmol/L (127 ng/ml) with a range of 220-519 nmol/L (88-208 ng/ml) for captive rhinoceros iguanas. On the basis of these results, serum concentrations of at least 325 nmol/L (130 ng/ml) for 25-hydroxyvitamin D should be considered normal for healthy Ricord's and rhinoceros iguanas. more...

Hematology and serum biochemistry values are reported for 33 Attwater's prairie chickens (Tympanuchus cupido attwateri) that were captive-reared at the San Antonio Zoo as part of a federal reintroduction program in Texas. Hematologic values include packed cell volume, and total and differential white blood cell counts. The biochemical values include concentrations of serum calcium, total protein, albumin, phosphorus, glucose, uric acid, and cholesterol. Mathematic computation of globulin concentration and albumin: globulin ratios were conducted. Also, determination of the serum activities of creatine kinase and aspartate aminotransferase was done. more...

Circulating plasma fat-soluble vitamin and mineral concentrations were compared in captive females of three species for fruit bats (Pteropus vampyrus, Pteropus hypomelanus, and Pteropus pumilus) fed the same diet. Daily total food intake averaged 28% of body weight on an as-fed basis or 7% on a dry matter basis. Dietary leftovers contained higher concentrations of phosphorus, magnesium, and zinc than the diet offered, suggesting some nutrient selectivity. Additionally, fecal mineral concentrations were two- to threefold higher than dietary concentrations of corresponding nutrients. Plasma concentrations of vitamin A (0.02-0.05 microg retinol/ml), vitamin D (1.50 ng 25-OH D3/ml; 93-108 pg 1,25 diOH D3/ml), and vitamin E (0.49-1.05 microg alpha-tocopherol/ml) were lower than in other herbivorous mammals, whereas plasma mineral concentrations were within normal mammalian ranges. These data may help assess the nutritional status of fruit bats. more...

Comprehensive hematologic and biochemical analyses were conducted on blood from 23 male and 31 female clinically stable captive mugger crocodiles (Crocodylus palustris). Erythrocyte mean corpuscular volume (MCV), potassium, cholesterol, and calcium concentrations were significantly greater in juvenile males than in juvenile females, but no significant differences were determined between parameters of subadult males and subadult females. The mean WBC count and mean heterophil count were significantly higher in adult males than in adult females. Mean uric acid concentration was significantly greater in adult females than in males. Mean erythrocyte count was significantly higher in adults than in juveniles. Adult mean WBC and lymphocyte counts were significantly lower than those of both juveniles and subadults. Subadults had significantly lower mean eosinophil counts than both adults and juveniles. Subadults had significantly lower mean alkaline phosphatase activities than juveniles, whereas the adults had significantly lower aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase activities than other groups. Lactate dehydrogenase activities were significantly lower for subadults than for juveniles and adults. Cholesterol concentrations were significantly higher for subadults and juveniles compared with adults. Triglyceride concentration was significantly lower for subadults and highest for juveniles. Glucose concentrations were significantly higher for adults. Blood urea nitrogen was significantly lower for subadults than for both adults and juveniles. Uric acid concentrations were significantly higher for juveniles than for the subadults and adults. The subadult animals also had a significantly lower potassium concentration. The results obtained were then compared with known values for other crocodilian species. more...

Normal serum biochemistry values are frequently obtained from studies of captive sedentary (zoo) or free-ranging (wild) animals. It is frequently assumed that values obtained from these two populations are directly referable to each other. We tested this assumption using 20 captive gray wolves (Canis lupus) in Minnesota, USA, and 11 free-ranging gray wolves in Alaska, USA. Free-ranging wolves had significantly (P < 0.05) lower sodium, chloride, and creatinine concentrations and significantly higher potassium and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) concentrations; BUN to creatinine ratios; and alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, and creatine kinase activities relative to captive wolves. Corticosteroid-induced alkaline phosphatase activity (a marker of stress in domestic dogs) was detected in 3 of 11 free-ranging wolves and in 0 of 20 captive wolves (P = 0.037). This study provides clear evidence that serum biochemical differences can exist between captive and free-ranging populations of one species. Accordingly, evaluation of the health status of an animal should incorporate an understanding of the potential confounding effect that nutrition, activity level, and environmental stress could have on the factor(s) being measured. more...