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The uncertainty of pesticide residue levels in crops due to sampling, estimated for 106 individual crops and 24 crop groups from residue data obtained from supervised trials, was adjusted with a factor of 1.3 to accommodate the larger variability of residues under normal field conditions. Further adjustment may be necessary in the case of mixed lots. The combined uncertainty of residue data including the contribution of sampling is used for calculation of an action limit, which should not be exceeded when compliance with maximum residue limits is certified as part of premarketing self-control programs. On the contrary, for testing compliance of marketed commodities the residues measured in composite samples should be greater than or equal to the decision limit calculated only from the combined uncertainty of the laboratory phase of the residue determination. The options of minimizing the combined uncertainty of measured residues are discussed. The principles described are also applicable to other chemical contaminants.

The main filamentous fungi producers of mycotoxins are Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp., and Fusarium spp. Their effect can provoke a broad range of toxic properties including carcinogenicity and neurotoxicity, as well as reproductive and developmental toxicities. Ochratoxin A (OTA) is produced by Aspergillus and Penicillium spp. The purpose of this review was to evaluate the risk assessment of OTA in alcoholic drinks (beer and wine) by compiling the results obtained from studies and reviews related to the presence of OTA in these two drinks from southern European countries in the period 2005-2013 and comparing those results with the legislation available in the European Union.

In 2007 chicken jerky dog treats were implicated in causing illnesses and death in dogs in several countries. Affected dogs were diagnosed with acquired Fanconi syndrome, which is characterized by kidney malfunction. Known causes of this condition include a chemical assault by various contaminants including certain drugs. For this reason investigations into possible causes of the illnesses included antibiotics that may be used in animal husbandry. Targeted analyte screens of individual imported chicken jerky dog treats using LC-MS/MS detected six illegal antibiotics in imported products of several brands. Trimethoprim, tilmicosin, enrofloxacin, sulfaclozine, and sulfamethoxazole are not allowed in chicken at any level and were found as high as 2800 ng/g (ppb). Sulfaquinoxaline was found in chicken jerky treats as high as 800 ng/g, which is well above the U.S. FDA tolerance of 100 ng/g. Although there is no evidence these contaminants were responsible for the dog illnesses, their misuse could contribute to antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria.

Food allergy is an important public health issue worldwide. Allergic consumers must avoid eating foods that could provoke potentially life-threatening reactions, and successful avoidance depends on having complete and accurate information on food labels. Regulatory agencies support allergic consumers by working with industry to ensure that all food allergens that are intended to be present in a food are declared on the label and that effective controls are used to prevent the presence of unintended allergens. These regulatory activities take place in a complex legal and policy environment both domestically and internationally. Protecting allergic consumers in this complex environment requires effective use of public health data and risk assessments.

An online stacking capillary electrophoresis (CE) method, cation-selective exhaustive injection sweeping micellar electrokinetic chromatography (CSEI-sweep-MEKC), is developed and optimized for analysis of ractopamine (RP) and its homologue dehydroxyractopamine (DRP) in porcine meat. Chemometric experimental design was used to achieve the best possible optimization and reduce the number of trials and errors. The CSEI-sweep-MEKC method enables nanogram per gram level analysis, with limits of detection (LODs) in meat of 5 ng/g for RP and 3 ng/g for DRP (S/N = 3). A higher conductivity buffer (HCB) zone was injected into the capillary, allowing for the analytes to be electrokinetically injected at a voltage of 9 kV for 12 min. Using 125 mM sodium dodecyl sulfate and 15% methanol in the sweeping buffer, RP and DRP were well-separated. The method was validated with a linear calibration curve of 10-300 ng/g (r > 0.994). In comparison to the normal capillary zone electrophoresis method (1 psi for 10 s), this stacking strategy resulted in 900 times sensitivity enhancement. This technique was further applied for analyzing seven kinds of commercial meats, and the residual RP was detected in one (5.76 ng/g of RP). The data were corresponding to the data analyzed by the commercial testing kit and mass spectrometry spectra. This method was successfully used on real samples and is considered feasible for serving as a tool for routine examination in markets.

Simultaneous detection of two classes of dyes possessing different chemical properties is difficult. In this study, through negative/positive ion switching mode, simultaneous determination of four typical acid orange dyes and three typical basic orange dyes was achieved by a single high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method, and the analytical efficiency of multiresidues identification was greatly improved. To enhance detection sensitivity, the sample pretreatment conditions and HPLC-MS/MS determining conditions were carefully optimized. Under optimal conditions, good linearity was obtained over the range of 5-500 μg L(-1) with a correlation coefficient (R(2)) >0.9998. Limits of detection (LODs) and limits of quantification (LOQs) of the seven dyes were 0.5-3.0 and 2.0-6.0 μg kg(-1), respectively. The recoveries of the seven dyes in soybean products and marinated eggs were 74-126% with relative standard deviations (RSDs) of 2.22-25.4%, suggesting the developed method is promising for the accurate quantification of the seven dyes at trace levels in foods.

The Japanese government ordered the analysis of thousands of foods after the Fukushima nuclear accident to ascertain compliance with regulatory limits for anthropogenic radionuclides in food. Four hundred and forty-five samples obtained until 31 December 2011 from 11 prefectures exceeded the regulatory limits that were in force until 31 March 2012. The possibility of these 445 samples representing localized areas of high radiocesium concentration was investigated. The objective of this study was to determine the radiocesium activity ratio ((134)Cs/(137)Cs) in foods from each geographic area to possibly identify the radioactive signature of the four different reactors (i.e., four independent sources) in the distinct regions. The average (134)Cs/(137)Cs activity ratio was 0.98 ± 0.01 for all samples. However, no statistically significant deviations from this value could be confirmed in the various regions. Therefore, we conclude that the releases from reactor No. 4 (carrying a significantly smaller activity ratio) are assumed to be small when compared with the other three reactor releases. The individual radioisotopic signatures of reactors No. 1, 2, and 3 could not be identified in various Japanese regions using the food samples, indicating integral radiocesium contamination from these sources. Subsequent releases of fission products from the reactors (e.g., after possible criticalities reported in October 2011) proved to have no impact on the radiocesium activity ratio. A discussion of the development of the regulatory limits in Japan and Europe with regard to the current limits and radiological food safety are also included.

Since the National Toxicology Program (NTP) identified 4(5)-methylimidazole [4(5)-MI] as a cancer causing chemical in 2007 and the State of California added it to the Proposition 65 list of compounds as a carcinogen on January 7, 2011, many researchers and regulatory agencies have become focused on the presence of 4(5)-MI in foods and beverages. 4(5)-MI has been known to form in the Maillard reaction system consisting of a sugar and ammonia-a typical caramel-color preparation method for beverages. 4(5)-MI is identified in various beverages and sauces, which are colored with caramel, as well as in caramel color itself. Analysis of 4(5)-MI is extremely difficult due to its high water solubility, but the analytical method for 4(5)-MI has progressed from conventional paper chromatography, gas chromatography, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry to the most advanced high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Various studies indicate that caramel colors and carbonated beverages contain 4(5)-MI in levels ranging from 0 to around 1000 ppm and from 0 to about 500 ppm, respectively. Reports of the toxicity of 4(5)-MI at relatively high levels suggest that it may cause some adverse effects on human consumers.

A Scientific Advisory Panel (SAP) in June 2009 concluded that a common mode of action existed for pyrethroids, with two subgroups. The purpose of this SAP was to advise the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency on the validity of regulation of pyrethroids as a single class under the Food Quality Protection Act of 1996. Two types of pyrethroid action were first described for clinical signs in the rat and clinical signs/nerve effects in the cockroach. In insects, Type I clinical signs correlate with repetitive firing in nerve axons, especially fine sensory axons. The Na(+) inward current is via a TTX-sensitive voltage-gated sodium channel (VGSC). Type II (α-CN) effects on VGSCs do not include repetitive firing following stimulation in these axons. Instead, Type II effects on VGSCs include prolonged Na(+) tail currents along with depolarization of nerve membrane. Other Type II effects have been measured on VG Ca(2+) and K(+) channels and VG and GABA-activated Cl(-) channels. In conclusion, in vivo pyrethroid effects in mammals should be linked with specific channel effects, allowing the use of specific clinical signs or ion channel effects for pyrethroid risk assessment.

A statistically based survey of dioxins and dioxin-like compounds in domestic meat and poultry was conducted by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) from September 2007 to September 2008. Seventeen toxic polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) and four non-ortho-polychlorinated biphenyls (no-PCBs) were measured in 510 beef (steer/heifer), market hog, young turkey, and young chicken samples. The results of the survey showed the sum of PCDD/F and no-PCB toxic equivalencies (sum-TEQs) ranging from not detected to 4.5 pg/g of lipid. Mean sum-TEQ levels for beef, turkey, chicken, and pork were 0.66, 0.61, 0.17, and 0.16 pg/g of lipid, respectively. To compare the new survey data with data from previous USDA surveys in the mid-1990s and 2002-2003, TEQs from all data sets were calculated using the most recent 2005 toxic equivalency factors (TEFs). The results of the recalculation on the older survey data was a small increase (4-13%) in mean TEQs for the mid-1990s data, which initially used pre-1994 TEFs, and a small decrease (2-4%) for the 2002-2003 data, which initially used 1998 TEFs. A comparison of the three surveys indicates declining TEQ trends in all slaughter classes over the 10 year period; however, the congener patterns remain relatively constant between 2002 and 2008, indicating similar animal exposures to dioxins and dioxin-like compounds during these time periods. Several samples from the 2008 survey with the highest TEQ values are undergoing follow-up investigations to determine possible sources that may be contributing to these levels.

The Agriculture and Food Chemistry Division (AGFD) was founded in 1908 shortly after passage of the first U.S. food regulations in 1906. Modern food regulations started with the passage of the Food Drug and Cosmetic Act in 1938. This Act has been amended several times to keep pace with developments in food chemistry. In 1958 the Food Additives Amendment was enacted to control substances added to food. Since 1958 scientific techniques have been developed to evaluate the safety and carcinogenicity of substances in the food supply. In the 1970s and 1980s AGFD symposia and books addressed compounds of concern in foods. In the 1990s food safety and nutrition regulations followed new developments in food and nutrition chemistry. Recently, the well-studied toxin acrylamide was discovered in food and presented regulators with new questions on safety and control in the food supply. Discoveries and developments in chemistry such as those in nanotechnology will continue to present challenges to food regulators.

A study on the natural occurrence of aflatoxins in Chinese peanut butter and sesame paste samples was conducted. Aflatoxin B(1) (AFB(1)) was the predominant toxin detected abundantly and frequently at a level up to 68.51 microg/kg in 41 of 50 peanut butter samples and 20.45 microg/kg in 37 of 100 sesame paste samples analyzed by liquid chromatography (LC). Of the AFB(1)-positive samples, 15 (37%) and 1 (2%) peanut butter samples with AFB(1) exceed European Union (EU) and Chinese regulations, respectively, whereas 19 and 32% of sesame paste samples contained AFB(1) higher than Chinese and EU regulations, respectively. Fourteen and 1 peanut butter samples and 10 and 7 sesame paste samples, respectively, will be legally claimed as positive, rejected, and even banned with consideration of an uncertainty of 40% for AFB(1), based on EU and Chinese regulations. Seeking to balance health benefits with the potential trade disruptions that regulations can cause is the issue of concern.

An analytical approach for the detection and quantification of cocoa butter equivalents (CBEs) in milk chocolate is presented. It is based on (i) a comprehensive standardized database covering the triacylglycerol composition of a wide range of authentic milk fat (n=310), cocoa butter (n=75), and CBE (n=74) samples and 947 gravimetrically prepared mixtures thereof, (ii) the availability of a certified cocoa butter reference material (IRMM-801) for calibration, (iii) an evaluation algorithm, which allows a reliable quantification of the milk fat content in chocolate fats using a simple linear regression model, (iv) a subsequent correction of triacylglycerols deriving from milk fat, (v) mathematical expressions to detect the presence of CBEs in milk chocolate, and (vi) a multivariate statistical formula to quantify the amount of CBEs in milk chocolate. The detection limit was 1% CBE in chocolate fat (0.3% CBE in milk chocolate, having a fat content of 30%). For quantification, the average error for prediction was 1.2% CBE in chocolate fat, corresponding to 0.4% in milk chocolate (fat content, 30%).

The 2003 Council for Agricultural Science and Technology Mycotoxin report states that one 21st century goal is the development of uniform regulations worldwide for foodborne mycotoxin contamination. This study informs that endeavor by a risk assessment and economic analysis of two important mycotoxins: fumonisins and aflatoxins. The goals are to identify the nations that would be most heavily impacted by tighter mycotoxin regulations, examine costs and benefits as a function of regulatory stringency, and address risk-risk tradeoffs between health benefits and economic losses from compliance with those regulations. Among industrial nations, the United States would experience the heaviest economic losses from more precautionary mycotoxin standards. Environmental conditions in the developing world, however, are more conducive to mycotoxin accumulation in crops. Contrary to concerns expressed among policymakers, the less developed countries that would likely experience the greatest loss from tighter mycotoxin standards are not sub-Saharan African nations, but China and Argentina. If a fumonisin standard of 0.5 mg/kg were adopted worldwide, total export losses from fumonisins in corn may exceed 300 million dollars annually: 3-fold higher than if the less stringent U.S. standard of 2 mg/kg were adopted. Likewise, export losses from aflatoxins in peanuts may exceed 450 million dollars under the current EU regulatory standard of 4 microg/kg: almost 5-fold higher than if the U.S. standard of 20 microg/kg were adopted. Stricter standards are unlikely to improve health significantly. In developing nations such as China where hepatitis B and C are prevalent, tighter aflatoxin standards may increase health risks until improved control methods for aflatoxins are found, as high-quality crops may be exported instead of being consumed domestically.