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Inert single-layer boron nitride (h-BN) grown on a catalytic metal may be functionalized with quaternary ammonium compounds (quats) that are widely used as nonreactive electrolytes. We observe that the quat treatment, which facilitates the electrochemical transfer of two-dimensional materials, involves a decomposition of quat ions and leads to covalently bound quat derivatives on top of the 2D layer. Applying tetraoctylammonium and h-BN on rhodium, the reaction product is top-alkylized h-BN as identified with high-resolution X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The alkyl chains are homogeneously distributed across the surface, and the properties thereof are well-tunable by the choice of different quats. The functionalization further weakens the 2D material-substrate interaction and promotes easy transfer. Therefore, the functionalization scheme that is presented enables the design of 2D materials with tailored properties and with the freedom to position and orient them as required. The mechanism of this functionalization route is investigated with density functional theory calculations, and we identify the proximity of the catalytic metal substrate to alter the chemical reactivity of otherwise inert h-BN layers.

The enhanced electrochemical activity of nanostructured materials is readily exploited in energy devices, but their utility in scalable and human-compatible implantable neural interfaces can significantly advance the performance of clinical and research electrodes. We utilize low-temperature selective dealloying to develop scalable and biocompatible one-dimensional platinum nanorod (PtNR) arrays that exhibit superb electrochemical properties at various length scales, stability, and biocompatibility for high performance neurotechnologies. PtNR arrays record brain activity with cellular resolution from the cortical surfaces in birds and nonhuman primates. Significantly, strong modulation of surface recorded single unit activity by auditory stimuli is demonstrated in European Starling birds as well as the modulation of local field potentials in the visual cortex by light stimuli in a nonhuman primate and responses to electrical stimulation in mice. PtNRs record behaviorally and physiologically relevant neuronal dynamics from the surface of the brain with high spatiotemporal resolution, which paves the way for less invasive brain−machine interfaces.

ACS Sensors, 4 (2), ISSN:2379-3694

In this publication we present an improvement to our previously introduced vertical flow microarray, the FoRe array, which capitalizes on the fusion of immunofiltration and densely packed micron test sites. Filtering samples through individual microarray spots allows us to rapidly analyze dilute samples with high-throughput and high signal-to-noise. Unlike other flowthrough microarrays, in the FoRe design samples are injected into micron channels and sequentially exposed to different targets. This arrangement makes it possible to increase the sensitivity of the microarray by simply increasing the sample volume or to rapidly reconcentrate samples after preprocessing steps dilute the analyte. Here we present a new inlet system which allows us to increase the analyzed sample volume without compromising the micron spot size and dense layout. We combined this with a model assay to demonstrate that the device is sensitive to the amount of antigen, and as a result, sample volume directly correlates to sensitivity. We introduced a simple technique for analysis of blood, which previously clogged the nanometer-sized pores, requiring only microliter volumes expected from an infant heel prick. A drop of blood is mixed with buffer to separate the plasma before reconcentrating the sample on the microarray spot. We demonstrated the success of this procedure by spiking TNF-α into blood and achieved a limit of detection of 18 pM. Compared to traditional protein microarrays, the FoRe array is still inexpensive, customizable, and simple to use, and thanks to these improvements has a broad range of applications from small animal studies to environmental monitoring.

Highly potent biotoxins like Pseudomonas exotoxin A (ETA) are attractive payloads for tumor targeting. However, despite replacement of the natural cell-binding domain of ETA by tumor-selective antibodies or alternative binding proteins like designed ankyrin repeat proteins (DARPins) the therapeutic window of such fusion toxins is still limited by target-independent cellular uptake, resulting in toxicity in normal tissues. Furthermore, the strong immunogenicity of the bacterial toxin precludes repeated administration in most patients. Site-specific modification to convert ETA into a prodrug-like toxin which is reactivated specifically in the tumor, and at the same time has a longer circulation half-life and is less immunogenic, is therefore appealing. To engineer a prodrug-like fusion toxin consisting of the anti-EpCAM DARPin Ec1 and a domain I-deleted variant of ETA (ETA″), we used strain-promoted azide alkyne cycloaddition for bioorthogonal conjugation of linear or branched polyethylene glycol (PEG) polymers at defined positions within the toxin moiety. Reversibility of the shielding was provided by a designed peptide linker containing the cleavage site for the rhinovirus 3C model protease. We identified two distinct sites, one within the catalytic domain and one close to the C-terminal KDEL sequence of Ec1-ETA″, simultaneous PEGylation of which resulted in up to 1000-fold lower cytotoxicity in EpCAM-positive tumor cells. Importantly, the potency of the fusion toxin was fully restored by proteolytic unveiling. Upon systemic administration in mice, PEGylated Ec1-ETA″ was much better tolerated than Ec1-ETA″; it showed a longer circulation half-life and an almost 10-fold increased area under the curve (AUC). Our strategy of engineering prodrug-like fusion toxins by bioorthogonal veiling opens new possibilities for targeting tumors with more specificity and efficacy.

Hydrogel nanoparticles (HNP) are an emerging tool of biomedicine with unique materials characteristics, scope, and utility. These hydrated, soft colloidal carriers can penetrate through voids with dimensions narrower than the size of the particle, provide stabilization for fragile biological cargo and allow diffusion and exchange of solutes with external phase. However, techniques to assemble HNP are few; solitary examples exist of biocompatible polymers being formulated into HNP; and knowledge on the biomedical properties of HNP remains rather cursory. In this work, we investigate assembly of HNP based on a polymer with decades of prominence in the biomedical field, poly(vinyl alcohol), PVA. We develop a novel method for production of PVA HNP through nanoprecipitation-based assembly of polymer nanoparticles and subsequent physical hydrogelation of the polymer. Polymer nanoparticles and HNP were visualized using scanning electron microscopy and fluorescence imaging, and characterized using dynamic light scattering and zeta potential measurements. Interaction of PVA HNP with mammalian cells was investigated using flow cytometry, viability screening, and measurements of nitric oxide production by cultured macrophages. The latter analyses revealed that PVA administered as a polymer solution or in the form of HNP resulted in no measurable increase in production of the inflammation marker. Unexpectedly, PVA HNP exerted a pronounced inhibition of NO synthesis by stimulated macrophages, that is, had an anti-inflammatory activity. This effect was accomplished with a negligible change in the cell viability and was not observed when PVA was administered as a polymer solution. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first observation of inhibition of NO synthesis in macrophages by administered nanoparticles and specifically hydrogel nanoparticles. Taken together, our results present PVA HNP as promising colloidal hydrogel nanocarriers for biomedical applications, specifically drug delivery and assembly of intracellular biosensors.

Ultrathin films of boron nitride (BN) have recently attracted considerable interest given their successful incorporation in graphene nanodevices and their use as spacer layers to electronically decouple and order functional adsorbates. Here, we introduce a BN monolayer grown by chemical vapor deposition of borazine on a single crystal Cu support, representing a model system for an electronically patterned but topographically smooth substrate. Scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy experiments evidence a weak bonding of the single BN sheet to Cu, preserving the insulating character of bulk hexagonal boron nitride, combined with a periodic lateral variation of the local work function and the surface potential. Complementary density functional theory calculations reveal a varying registry of the BN relative to the Cu lattice as origin of this electronic Moiré-like superstructure.

We demonstrate the ability to trap, levitate, and orient single anisometric nanoscale objects with high angular precision in a fluid. An electrostatic fluidic trap confines a spherical object at a spatial location defined by the minimum of the electrostatic system free energy. For an anisometric object and a potential well lacking angular symmetry, the system free energy can further strongly depend on the object's orientation in the trap. Engineering the morphology of the trap thus enables precise spatial and angular confinement of a single levitating nano-object, and the process can be massively parallelized. Since the physics of the trap depends strongly on the surface charge of the object, the method is insensitive to the object's dielectric function. Furthermore, levitation of the assembled objects renders them amenable to individual manipulation using externally applied optical, electrical, or hydrodynamic fields, raising prospects for reconfigurable chip-based nano-object assemblies.

We show how gold recrystallizes when under the influence of electrochemical potentials. This "cold annealing" occurs without charge transfer reactions and preserves nanoscale structural features. By performing the process on plasmonic nanostructures, grain growth is monitored noninvasively by optical spectroscopy. In this way, the influence from crystal structure on plasmon resonances can be investigated independently. Observed spectral changes are in excellent agreement with analytical models and changes in electron relaxation time and plasma frequency are calculated.

Single binding events of nanoparticle-labeled DNA strands were detected as stepwise peak shifts in localized surface plasmon resonance by single particle measurement. We confirmed the number of binding events by observing label particles by scanning electron microscopy. Our simulation based on a multiple multipole program showed that the peak shift is dependent on interparticle gap size and binding position. The experimental peak shift distribution was also reproduced by simulation.

Polycationic molecules form condensates with DNA and are used for gene therapy as an alternative to viral vectors. As clinical efficacy corresponds to cellular uptake, intracellular stability of the condensates, and bioavailability of the DNA, it is crucial to analyze uptake mechanisms and trafficking pathways. Here, a detailed study of uptake, stability, and localization of PLL-g-PEG-DNA nanoparticles within COS-7 cells is presented, using FACS analysis to assess the involvement of different uptake mechanisms, colocalization studies with markers indicative for different endocytotic pathways, and immunofluorescence staining to analyze colocalization with intracellular compartments. PLL-g-PEG-DNA nanoparticles were internalized in an energy-dependent manner after 2 h and accumulated in the perinuclear region after >6 h. The nanoparticles were found to be stable within the cytoplasm for at least 24 h and did not colocalize with the endosomal pathway. Nanoparticle uptake was approximately 50% inhibited by genistein, an inhibitor of the caveolae-mediated pathway. However, genistein did not inhibit gene expression, and PLL-g-PEG-DNA nanoparticles were not colocalized with caveolin-1 indicating that caveolae-mediated endocytosis is not decisive for DNA delivery. Clathrin-mediated endocytosis and macropinocytosis pathways were reduced by 17 and 24%, respectively, in the presence of the respective inhibitors. When cells were transfected in the presence of double and triple inhibitors, transfection efficiencies were increasingly reduced by 40 and 70%, respectively; however, no differences were found between the different uptake mechanisms. These findings suggest that PLL-g-PEG-DNA nanoparticles enter by several pathways and might therefore be an efficient and versatile tool to deliver therapeutic DNA.

Encoded self-assembling chemical (ESAC) libraries are characterized by the covalent display of chemical moieties at the extremity of self-assembling oligonucleotides carrying a unique DNA sequence for the identification of the corresponding chemical moiety. We have used ESAC library technology in a two-step selection procedure for the identification of novel inhibitors of stromelysin-1 (MMP-3), a matrix metalloproteinase involved in both physiological and pathological tissue remodeling processes, yielding novel inhibitors with micromolar potency.