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A deep-learning convolutional neural network (CNN) is used to infer, from x-ray images along multiple lines of sight, the low-mode shape of the hot-spot emission of deuterium–tritium (DT) laser-direct-drive cryogenic implosions on OMEGA. The motivation of this approach is to develop a physics-informed 3-D reconstruction technique that can be performed within minutes to facilitate the use of the results to inform changes to the initial target and laser conditions for the subsequent implosion. The CNN is trained on a 3D radiation-hydrodynamic simulation database to relate 2D x-ray images to 3D emissivity at stagnation. The CNN accounts for the lack of an absolute spatial reference and the different bands of photon energies in the x-ray images. While previous work [O. M. Mannion et al., Phys. Plasmas 28, 042701 (2021) and A. Lees et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 127, 105001 (2021)] studied the effect of mode-1 asymmetries on implosion performance using nuclear diagnostics, this work focuses on the effect of mode 2 inferred from x-ray diagnostics on implosion performance. A current analysis of 19 DT cryogenic implosions indicates there is an upper limit of ∼20% reduction in the neutron yield caused by an ℓ = 2 amplitude for ℓ2/ℓ0 ≤ 0.32. These conclusions are supported by 2D simulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ion temperatures serve as an important diagnostic for inertial confinement fusion (ICF) implosions. In direct-drive ICF experiments on OMEGA, neutron-time-of-flight (nTOF) data are used to infer the ion temperature of the fusing plasma produced in the implosion experiment. The analysis of the nTOF data requires an assumption about the shape of the underlying source signal. Since the source nTOF signal is a near-replica of the neutron energy spectrum, an ideal Gaussian shape, corresponding to the neutron energy spectrum of a uniform temperature plasma, is routinely employed. However, spatial and temporal variations of the ion temperature in the plasma give rise to higher-order moments, which were first described by Munro [Nucl. Fusion 56, 036001 (2016)]. In this work, we show a simpler alternative analysis to derive moments of the neutron energy spectrum for a plasma with variations in ion temperature. We also present a revised analysis of measured nTOF signals that uses a model with an additional degree of freedom to take into account the effect of ion temperature variations on the shape of the spectrum. Compared to presently used nTOF analysis, the revised analysis yields on average ≈ 2 × more accurate fits to the data and up to 15% higher ion temperatures for cryogenic experiments. Furthermore, we quantify the ion temperature inflation caused by radially symmetric fluid flows, which are present even in a symmetric implosion, and which serve as a lower bound on the ion temperature inflation in real implosions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Improving the performance of inertial confinement fusion implosions requires physics models that can accurately predict the response to changes in the experimental inputs. Good predictive capability has been demonstrated for the fusion yield using a statistical mapping of simulated outcomes to experimental data [Gopalaswamy et al., Nature 565(771), 581–586 (2019)]. In this paper, a physics-based statistical mapping approach is used to extract and quantify all the major sources of degradation of fusion yield for direct-drive implosions on the OMEGA laser. The yield is found to be dependent on the age of the deuterium tritium fill, the ℓ = 1 asymmetry in the implosion core, the laser beam-to-target size ratio, and parameters related to the hydrodynamic stability. A controlled set of experiments were carried out where only the target fill age was varied while keeping all other parameters constant. The measurements were found to be in excellent agreement with the fill age dependency inferred using the mapping model. In addition, a new implosion design was created, guided by the statistical mapping model by optimizing the trade-offs between increased laser energy coupling at larger target size and the degradations caused by the laser beam-to-target size ratio and hydrodynamic instabilities. When experimentally performed, an increased fusion yield was demonstrated in targets with larger diameters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A three-dimensional model of the hot-spot x-ray emission has been developed and applied to the study of low-mode drive asymmetries in direct-drive inertial confinement fusion implosions on OMEGA with cryogenic deuterium–tritium targets. The steady-state model assumes an optically thin plasma and the data from four x-ray diagnostics along quasi-orthogonal lines of sight are used to obtain a tomographic reconstruction of the hot spot. A quantitative analysis of the hot-spot shape is achieved by projecting the x-ray emission into the diagnostic planes and comparing this projection to the measurements. The model was validated with radiation-hydrodynamic simulations assuming a mode-2 laser illumination perturbation resulting in an elliptically shaped hot spot, which was accurately reconstructed by the model using synthetic x-ray images. This technique was applied to experimental data from implosions in polar-direct-drive illumination geometry with a deliberate laser-drive asymmetry, and the hot-spot emission was reconstructed using spherical-harmonic modes of up to ℓ = 3. A 10% stronger drive on the equator relative to that on the poles resulted in a prolate-shaped hot spot at stagnation with a large negative A2,0 coefficient of A2,0 = −0.47 ± 0.03, directly connecting the modal contribution of the hot-spot shape with the modal contribution in laser-drive asymmetry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three-dimensional effects play a crucial role during the hot-spot formation in inertial confinement fusion (ICF) implosions. A data analysis technique for 3D hot-spot reconstruction from experimental observables has been developed to characterize the effects of low modes on 3D hot-spot formations. In nuclear measurements, the effective flow direction, governed by the maximum eigenvalue in the velocity variance of apparent ion temperatures, has been found to agree with the measured hot-spot flows for implosions dominated by mode ℓ = 1. Asymmetries in areal-density (ρR) measurements were found to be characterized by a unique cosine variation along the hot-spot flow axis. In x-ray images, a 3D hot-spot x-ray emission tomography method was developed to reconstruct the 3D hot-spot plasma emissivity using a generalized spherical-harmonic Gaussian function. The gradient-descent algorithm was used to optimize the mapping between the projections from the 3D hot-spot emission model and the measured x-ray images along multiple views. This work establishes a platform to analyze 3D low-mode core asymmetries in ICF. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accurate diagnosis of areal density (ρR) is critical for the inference of performance metrics in inertial confinement fusion implosions. One potential source of error in this diagnosis is the existence of low mode perturbations in the imploding target, which lead to asymmetries in the inference of the ρR from different lines of sight. Here, the error accrued as a result of limited coverage of the sphere due to a finite number of detectors is quantified, and the development of a forward scatter measurement from the OMEGA neutron time-of-flight detectors is motivated. A method by which the 1D-equivalent 4π-averaged ⟨ ρ R ⟩ can be reconstructed, if accurate mode information can be diagnosed by other means, is validated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Integrated magnetized liner inertial fusion (MagLIF) experiments on the OMEGA laser system are modeled to investigate the effects of laser preheat on implosion performance. In both simulations and experiments, preheating the fuel with a laser enhances the neutron yield, with the maximum yield occurring at an optimal preheat laser energy. Increasing the preheat energy past the optimal value reduces the neutron yield. In simulations, the rate of the drop in neutron yield depends on the inclusion of the Nernst effect. The Nernst effect advects the magnetic field away from the center of the fuel region during the preheat stage of MagLIF on OMEGA and weakens magnetic-flux compression. If the Nernst effect is not included, the simulated drop in yield past the optimal preheat laser energy is more gradual as opposed to the sharper drop seen in experiments. Simulations are able to model trend in measured ion temperatures seen in experiments. A mix model is used to show that including mix from the wall in the simulated fuel region further degrades the yield and lowers the optimal preheat laser energy. Simulations with mix predict that increasing the initial axial magnetic field may still enhance yield performance in integrated implosions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In inertial confinement fusion implosion experiments, variations in the shell areal density reduce the shell's inertia to confine the core pressure. Distorted capsules with large areal-density modulations decompress faster than uniform capsules in the disassembly phase. A simple 3D analytic hot-spot model is derived to include the effects of low-mode areal-density modulations in the ignition criterion. The generalized 3D ignition criterion for low modes is shown to depend on both the harmonic mean and the arithmetic mean of the areal density. The "thin spots" in the shell are shown to dominate the loss of confinement as reflected by the harmonic mean definition of areal densities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three-dimensional reconstruction algorithms have been developed, which determine the hot-spot velocity, hot-spot apparent ion temperature distribution, and fuel areal-density distribution present in laser-direct-drive inertial confinement fusion implosions on the OMEGA laser. These reconstructions rely on multiple independent measurements of the neutron energy spectrum emitted from the fusing plasma. Measurements of the neutron energy spectrum on OMEGA are made using a suite of quasi-orthogonal neutron time-of-flight detectors and a magnetic recoil spectrometer. These spectrometers are positioned strategically around the OMEGA target chamber to provide unique 3D measurements of the conditions of the fusing hot spot and compressed fuel near peak compression. The uncertainties involved in these 3D reconstructions are discussed and are used to identify a new nTOF diagnostic line of sight, which when built will reduce the uncertainty in the hot-spot apparent ion temperature distribution from 700 to <400 eV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In inertial confinement fusion implosion experiments, the presence of residual anisotropic fluid motion within the stagnating hot spot leads to significant variations in ion-temperature measurements using neutron time-of-flight detectors along different lines of sight. The minimum ion-temperature measurement is typically used as representative of the thermal temperature. In the presence of isotropic flows, however, even the minimum Deuterium–Tritium (DT) neutron-inferred ion temperature can be well above the plasma thermal temperature. Using both Deuterium–Deuterium (DD) and DT neutron-inferred ion-temperature measurements, we show that it is possible to determine the contribution of isotropic flows and infer the DT burn-averaged thermal ion temperature. The contribution of large isotropic flows on driving the ratio of DD to DT neutron-inferred ion temperatures well below unity and approaching the lower bound of 0.8 is demonstrated in multimode simulations. The minimum DD neutron-inferred ion temperature is determined from the velocity variance analysis, accounting for the presence of isotropic flows. Being close to the DT burn-averaged thermal ion temperature, the inferred DD minimum ion temperatures demonstrate a strong correlation with the experimental yields in the OMEGA implosion database. An analytical expression is also derived to explain the effect of mode ℓ = 1 ion-temperature measurement asymmetry on yield degradations caused by the anisotropic flows. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In inertial confinement fusion, an externally applied magnetic field can reduce heat losses in the compressing fuel thereby increasing neutron-averaged ion temperatures and neutron yields. However, magnetization is only beneficial if the magnetic pressure remains negligible compared to the fuel pressure. Experiments and three-dimensional magneto-hydrodynamic simulations of cylindrical implosions on the OMEGA laser show ion temperature and neutron yield enhancements of up to 44% and 67%, respectively. As the applied axial magnetic field is increased to nearly 30 T, both experiments and simulations show yield degradation. For magnetized, cylindrical implosions, there exists an optimal magnetic field that maximizes the increase in yield. Limiting the fuel convergence ratio by preheating the fuel can further increase the benefit of magnetization. The results demonstrate that it is possible to create a plasma with a density of order 1 g / cm 3 and an ion temperature greater than 1 keV with a magnetic pressure comparable to the thermal pressure, a new regime for laser-produced plasmas on OMEGA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three-dimensional (3-D) implosion asymmetries lead to significant variations in ion-temperature measurements in inertial confinement fusion experiments. We present an analytical method to generalize the physical properties of velocity variance in the Brysk ion-temperature model. This analysis provides a consistent explanation for the 3-D effects of inferred ion-temperature variations for various single modes and multimodes modeled by the deceleration-phase hydrocode DEC3D and the neutron transport code IRIS3D. The effect of the hot-spot flow asymmetry on variations in ion-temperature measurements is shown to be uniquely determined by a complete set of six hot-spot flow parameters. An approximated solution to the minimum inferred ion temperature is derived and shown to be close to the thermal ion temperature for low mode ℓ = 1, which exhibits the largest anisotropic velocity variance in the single-mode spectrum. The isotropic velocity variance for low mode ℓ = 2 is shown to result in the minimum inferred ion temperatures being well above the thermal ion temperature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A detailed and comprehensive 1-dimensional theory of alpha-heating metrics is developed to determine the onset of burning plasma regimes in inertial fusion implosions. The analysis uses an analytic model of the deceleration, stagnation, and burn phases of inertial confinement fusion implosions combined with the results from a database of radiation-hydrodynamic simulations. The onset of the burning-plasma regime occurs when the alpha-heating rate in the hot spot exceeds the compression power input and is represented by the parameter Q α = 1 / 2 α energy/PdV work. A second burning plasma regime is also identified, where the alpha-heating rate exceeds the compression input to the entire stagnated plasma, including the hot spot and confining shell, and is represented by Q α t o t . It is shown that progress towards the burning-plasma regime is correlated with the yield enhancement caused by alpha-heating but is more accurately related to the fractional alpha energy f α = 1 / 2 α energy/hot-spot energy. In the analysis presented here, we develop a method to infer these intermediate metrics from experiments and show that the alpha power produced in National Ignition Facility High-Foot implosions is approximately 50% of the external input power delivered to the hot spot and 25% of the total external power (from compression) delivered to the stagnated core. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes a technique for identifying trends in performance degradation for inertial confinement fusion implosion experiments. It is based on reconstruction of the implosion core with a combination of low- and mid-mode asymmetries. This technique was applied to an ensemble of hydro-equivalent deuterium–tritium implosions on OMEGA which achieved inferred hot-spot pressures ≈56 ± 7 Gbar [Regan et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 117, 025001 (2016)]. All the experimental observables pertaining to the core could be reconstructed simultaneously with the same combination of low and mid-modes. This suggests that in addition to low modes, which can cause a degradation of the stagnation pressure, mid-modes are present which reduce the size of the neutron and x-ray producing volume. The systematic analysis shows that asymmetries can cause an overestimation of the total areal density in these implosions. It is also found that an improvement in implosion symmetry resulting from correction of either the systematic mid or low modes would result in an increase in the hot-spot pressure from 56 Gbar to ≈ 80 Gbar and could produce a burning plasma when the implosion core is extrapolated to an equivalent 1.9 MJ symmetric direct illumination [Bose et al., Phys. Rev. E 94, 011201(R) (2016)]. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study of Rayleigh–Taylor instability in the deceleration phase of inertial confinement fusion implosions is carried out using the three-dimensional (3-D) radiation-hydrodynamic Eulerian parallel code DEC3D. We show that the yield-over-clean is a strong function of the residual kinetic energy (RKE) for low modes. Our analytical models indicate that the behavior of larger hot-spot volumes observed in low modes and the consequential pressure degradation can be explained in terms of increasing the RKE. These results are derived using a simple adiabatic implosion model of the deceleration phase as well as through an extensive set of 3-D single-mode simulations using the code DEC3D. The effect of the bulk velocity broadening on ion temperature asymmetries is analyzed for different mode numbers ℓ = 1 –12. The jet observed in low mode ℓ = 1 is shown to cause the largest ion temperature variation in the mode spectrum. The vortices of high modes within the cold bubbles are shown to cause lower ion temperature variations than low modes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of asymmetries on the performance of inertial confinement fusion implosions is investigated. A theoretical model is derived for the compression of distorted hot spots, and quantitative estimates are obtained using hydrodynamic simulations. The asymmetries are divided into low (ℓ < 6) and intermediate (6 < ℓ < 40) modes by comparison of the mode wavelength with the hot-spot radius and the thermal-diffusion scale length. Long-wavelength modes introduce substantial nonradial motion, whereas intermediate-wavelength modes involve more cooling by thermal losses. It is found that for distorted hot spots, the measured neutron-averaged properties can be very different from the real hydrodynamic conditions. This is because mass ablation driven by thermal conduction introduces flows in the Rayleigh-Taylor bubbles that results in pressure variations, in addition to temperature variations between the bubbles and the neutron-producing region. The differences are less pronounced for long-wavelength asymmetries since the bubbles are relatively hot and sustain fusion reactions. The yield degradation--with respect to the symmetric case--results primarily from a reduction in the hot-spot pressure for low modes and from a reduction in burn volume for intermediate modes. A general expression is found relating the pressure degradation to the residual shell energy and the flow within the hot spot (i.e., the total residual energy). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article was originally published online on 26 August 2022 with an error in two of the section headings that appear on pages 2 and 3. Both section headings have been corrected as HT

The scaling of the deceleration phase of inertial fusion direct-drive implosions is investigated for OMEGA and National Ignition Facility (NIF)-size targets. It is shown that the deceleration-phase Rayleigh-Taylor instability (RTI) does not scale hydro-equivalently with implosion size. This is because ablative stabilization resulting from thermal conduction and radiation transport in a spherically converging geometry is different on the two scales. As a consequence, NIF-scale implosions show lower hot-spot density and mass ablation velocity, allowing for higher RTI growth. On the contrary, stabilization resulting from density-gradient enhancement, caused by reabsorption of radiation emitted from the hot spot, is higher on NIF implosions. Since the RTI mitigation related to thermal conduction and radiation transport scale oppositely with implosion size, the degradation of implosion performance caused by the deceleration RTI is similar for NIF and OMEGA targets. It is found that a minimum threshold for the no-α Lawson ignition parameter of XΩ ≈ 0.2 at the OMEGA scale is required to demonstrate hydro-equivalent ignition at the NIF scale for symmetric direct-drive implosions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The theory of ignition for inertial confinement fusion capsules [R. Betti et al., Phys. Plasmas 17, 058102 (2010)] is used to assess the performance requirements for cryogenic implosion experiments on the Omega Laser Facility. The theory of hydrodynamic similarity is developed in both one and two dimensions and tested using multimode hydrodynamic simulations with the hydrocode DRACO [P. B. Radha et al., Phys. Plasmas 12, 032702 (2005)] of hydro-equivalent implosions (implosions with the same implosion velocity, adiabat, and laser intensity). The theory is used to scale the performance of direct-drive OMEGA implosions to the National Ignition Facility (NIF) energy scales and determine the requirements for demonstrating hydro-equivalent ignition on OMEGA. Hydro-equivalent ignition on OMEGA is represented by a cryogenic implosion that would scale to ignition on the NIF at 1.8MJ of laser energy symmetrically illuminating the target. It is found that a reasonable combination of neutron yield and areal density for OMEGA hydro-equivalent ignition is 3 to 6 × 1013 and ~0.3 g/cm2, respectively, depending on the level of laser imprinting. This performance has not yet been achieved on OMEGA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We demonstrate the use of a unique plasma source to controllably functionalize graphene with nitrogen and primary amines, thereby tuning the chemical, structural, and electrical properties. Critically, even highly aminated graphene remains electronically conductive, making it an ideal transduction material for biosensing. Proof-of-concept testing of aminated graphene as a bio-attachment platform in a biologically active field-effect transistor used for DNA detection is demonstrated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A comprehensive model is developed to study alpha-heating in inertially confined plasmas. It describes the time evolution of a central low-density hot spot confined by a compressible shell, heated by fusion alphas, and cooled by radiation and thermal losses. The model includes the deceleration, stagnation, and burn phases of inertial confinement fusion implosions, and is valid for sub-ignited targets with ≤ 10 × amplification of the fusion yield from alpha-heating. The results of radiation-hydrodynamic simulations are used to derive realistic initial conditions and dimensionless parameters for the model. It is found that most of the alpha energy (∼90%) produced before bang time is deposited within the hot spot mass, while a small fraction (∼10%) drives mass ablation off the inner shell surface and its energy is recycled back into the hot spot. Of the bremsstrahlung radiation emission, ∼40% is deposited in the hot spot, ∼40% is recycled back in the hot spot by ablation off the shell, and ∼20% leaves the hot spot. We show here that the hot spot, shocked shell, and outer shell trajectories from this analytical model are in good agreement with simulations. A detailed discussion of the effect of alpha-heating on the hydrodynamics is also presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although legislation limiting noise exposure in the work place applies to individuals who wear headsets as part of their employment, no method for measuring the noise exposure of these individuals has previously existed. A system for carrying out this measurement has been developed. This system is indirect, in that the electrical signal to the headset is measured, the transfer function of the headset, ear, and dosimeter microphone is applied to the measured signal, and the resulting electrical signal input to a dosimeter. This approach requires the transfer function of the headset be measured for each brand and model that is used, but eliminates the need for in-ear microphones of the more direct approach. The transfer function of the headset is measured using an acoustic manikin head. A limited number of headsets brands and models have been used with this system to investigate both the variations between models and within a model. [Work supported by Department of Labor.] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]