Search

The last decade has brought many changes to Colorado's water supply outlook. Despite the recent economic recession, the state has experienced significant population growth, and Colorado's population is expected to nearly double within the next 40 years. Other pressures on Colorado's water supply include severe drought, a desire to meet multiple needs (i.e., municipal, environmental, recreational) with existing resources, and impacts to agriculture due to water shortages, urbanization, and transfers to new users. To address these challenges, the Colorado Water Conservation Board (CWCB) has undertaken a visioning process to explore solutions to these future water supply challenges. As part of this process, CWCB has led the state in identifying demand and supply strategies to meet the state's future water needs while considering agriculture and the environment. These strategies have been combined into varying portfolios that include methods such as conservation, local water projects, new Colorado River development, and agricultural transfers. This paper details the development and evaluation of these portfolios and describes stakeholder's efforts to balance meeting Colorado's water needs in the future.

South Africa is a semi arid country and several of our urban regions (e.g. Cape Town and Polokwane) have had to implement emergency water restrictions in recent years. The costs of augmenting urban water supplies are very high, but future augmentation schemes can be delayed if consumers become more efficiency minded in their use of water. A water efficient device (e.g. a modern 4.5 litre cistern and pan combination) is one which performs exactly the same function as an outdated device (e.g. the old 13 litre cistern and pan), but uses less water. Awareness of water efficiency in South Africa among the public, in the building profession and at municipal level is still relatively low. A move to water efficiency is evident on the showroom floors of the plumbing marker suppliers, but this is driven by international trends rather than local factors. Commercial institutional investors in South Africa are also showing signs of moving to water efficiency. In order for water efficiency to become the norm in South Africa amendments must be made to the national building code. Amendments to municipal bylaws can also be helpful, but the building industry works primarily with the building code and cannot be expected to keep track of the variations within the bylaws of South Africa's 169 Water Supply Authorities. The state is a major employer and building owner in its own right and needs to lead by example by moving to water efficiency in its own buildings.

According to United Nations (UN) data, over one billion people lack access to domestic water supply and 2.4 billion people lack elementary sanitation. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that by the year 2020, the number of people without access to water services will increase from 300 million (in 2003) to 400 million. In addition, by 2030, more than 50% of the population on the African continent will live in urban areas thereby increasing the demand on already stressed water resources. This paper describes how rainfall harvesting could be implemented to improve the availability of water in certain parts of West Africa. The implementation of rainfall harvesting strategies could result in very effective and sustainable water supply alternatives in the regions considered. The methods described focus on the implementation of solutions particularly tailored for the region. While most rainfall harvesting schemes focus on domestic rainfall harvesting (DRH) and thus water supply alternatives for residential use, this paper additionally explores water supply alternatives that could serve small communities like schools and small business centers. A brief discussion of Living Machines (LMs) is provided to motivate the presentation of larger-scale integrated rainfall harvesting and water recycling methods. The function and the basic principles underlying the development of LMs are included. The goal is to examine adaptations of LMs in the development of larger scale water systems that include rainfall harvesting and water recycling.

The Lower Colorado River Authority-San Antonio Water System Water Project (LSWP) is a cooperative effort between two regions in central Texas. The general project area in south central Texas is shown in Figure 1. The LSWP would conserve and develop water in the Lower Colorado River (Texas) basin in three ways: 1) Reduce agricultural irrigation water demand through conservation practices, efficiencies and measures. 2) Capture and store excess and unused river flows. 3) Use limited amounts of groundwater for agriculture in the Lower Colorado Fiver Basin when surface water is not available.

Huang-Huai-Hai River Basin, the recipient area of Water Transfer Project, is one of the most water-scarce territories in the world. Water resources already became the key factor to tie up the socioeconomic development. Therefore, to quantitatively analyze its contribution to national economy will be an important reference for the huge water diverting project evaluation. This paper calculates the output elasticity and marginal benefit of water by establishing Cobb-Dauglas production function for Huang-Huang-Hai and whole nation. The result shows the marginal benefit of Huang-Huai-Hai including agriculture is around 2.9yuan/m 3 , excluding agriculture is around 13.2 yuan/m 3 , which is higher than national average value. It can be predicted that the water marginal benefit will increases as scarcity of water, correspondently the GDP losses by water shortage will be intensified. Thus, implementing the diverting project will be a wise way to diminish the loss.

Bangladesh is the lowest riparian country of the Ganges-BrahmaputraMeghna (GBM) basin which constitutes one of the largest river systems in the world. More than ninety percent of the freshwater resources of the country originate outside the political boundary. Currently, Bangladesh faces extreme uncertainty in water management due to increased interventions of the rivers in the upstream reaches in India. Water sharing between the two countries has become a contentious issue since the commencement of the diversion of the Ganges flow at the Farakka Barrage in 1975. Recently disclosed unilateral plan of a mega-project for inter-basin transfer of water by India poses greater threat to the entire water resources, ecology and livelihood of several tens of million of poor people. In this paper, the authors analyze the effect of the apparent basin-wide development on the water resources and propoor water management of Bangladesh. The previous experience of the Ganges set a baseline for that analysis. This shows that the entire Southwestern region of the country has been severely affected including agricultural, ecological and socioeconomic sectors. The adverse effects would multiply extending major part of the country if the proposed transfer of water from Brahmaputra basin is realized. Consequently, Bangladesh is in a dilemma for managing its vital water resources and fragile ecology which has profound implication in medium and long term planning for integrated water resources management. This study examines the sensitivity of the water resources system to the anticipated upstream development. Finally, the shortcomings of the recently approved National Water Management Plan in addressing the potential risk have been scrutinized to indicate probable actions to cope with this crucial issue.

Sponsored by the Laws and Institutions Committee of the Environmental and Water Resources Institute of ASCE.

In August 2002, North Carolina passed the Central Coastal Plain Capacity Use Area (CCPCUA) Rule to regulate groundwater withdrawal from the Cretaceous aquifers in order to minimize serious water level declines and salt water intrusion that have been progressively worsening in these aquifers. The major groundwater impacts are being observed in two principal aquifers, the Black Creek and Upper Cape Fear, which have been desirable sources of high-quality, low-cost drinking water throughout this 15-County region. The regulations require groundwater withdrawals from the most affected portions of the region to be limited to 1997 withdrawal rates and may be further reduced by up to 75% over a 16-year period ending in 2018. The regulations are meant to avoid permanent damage to the aquifers and to help support economic growth in the region by having a sustainable water supply through development of alternative water supplies and by promoting water conservation and reuse. The North Carolina Rural Center undertook a study to determine the effects of the CCPCUA Rule, evaluate current and future water supply needs and sources, identify water supply alternatives, and estimate the costs of compliance for 122 public water supply systems affected by this Rule. If fully implemented, the CCPCUA Rule will directly impact over 40 public water systems and will result in the elimination of 38 million gallons per day (mgd) of existing groundwater sources. Replacement of these sources and development of alternative water supplies to meet future 2020 water demand is estimated to cost more than $250 million. Alternative water sources identified by the study include: 1) development of alternate groundwater supplies from underutilized aquifers; 2) development of surface water sources; 3) regionalization of water systems to allow more efficient use of existing water supplies; 4) water conservation, demand reduction, and water reuse; and 5) non-traditional sources such as brackish water, mine dewatering supplies, horizontal collector wells, and aquifer storage and recovery. Regional cooperation will be an important opportunity, allowing economy of scale in addressing aggregate demand, cost sharing, uniform rates, and bond-issuing authority.

The overall objective of this research was to understand how humans rely on freshwater at local and regional scales in selected parts of the Arctic, how these dependencies have changed in the recent past, and how they are likely to change in the future. This study is taking place on the Seward Peninsula in northwestern Alaska, where climate induced changes in the hydrologic cycle are currently being observed. This paper documents results to date on past industrial and domestic water demand on the Seward Peninsula. Preliminary results suggest that water use was high in the Nome Mining District and then decreased proportionally with the decline of placer mining operations. Water was used in placer gold mining operations on the Seward Peninsula to run hydraulic giants and sluice boxes. Because water was one of the limiting factors in mining operations, a series of ditches diverted nearly all available surface water in the Nome mining district between 1905 and 1914 for industrial use. The domestic water demand, that is, water used for drinking, cooking and cleaning, increased over the past 40 years as piped water and sewer systems were installed in many villages. Domestic demand can increase by 900% when a community installs piped water. The increase in demand corresponding to this change of delivery system can be seen in the difference between water consumption in a village with a central watering point, such as Wales, and a village such as Brevig Mission, where every house is connected to a piped water and sewer system. Historical pressures on the freshwater resource are being used to better understand the vulnerability of the resource now and in the future.

As population continues to increase across the United States and around the world, there is a growing demand for safe, reliable sources of water to meet the needs of the expanding population. Farmers, ranchers, and rural communities are particularly susceptible to the mounting pressures to provide more water to urban and urbanizing areas at the expense of water supplies in rural and agricultural communities. Agricultural water security is used here to describe the need to maintain adequate water supplies to meet the food and fiber needs of the expanding population — maximizing the efficiency of water use by farmers, ranchers, and rural communities. Drought and the reliability of water supplies for agriculture and rural communities historically have been linked to western states. However, issues surrounding agricultural water security have expanded beyond western states and now represent a national crisis. On June 5, 2003 Interior Secretary Gale A. Norton and Agriculture Secretary Ann M. Veneman signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) aimed at promoting improved water management and rapid response to emerging water supply shortages in the West. This MOU highlights the need for expanding the research and education programs focused on better management of water resources. On September 9–10 2004, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)-Research Education, and Economics (REE) agencies conduced an Agricultural Water Security Listening Session in Park City, Utah, to determine the relevance of current USDA-REE efforts and to develop the basis for future research, education, extension, and economics programs within USDA that take full advantage of partnerships with other federal and state agencies. These REE agencies include the Agricultural Research Service (ARS), the Cooperative State Research, Education and Extension Service (CSREES), the National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS), and the Economic Research Service (ERS). Approximately 90 representatives from federal and state agencies, universities and colleges, non-profit and private sector firms and local municipalities participated in the listening session. Six key topic areas were identified for REE involvement through the listening session: drought preparedness and mitigation, irrigation efficiency, general water conservation, urban and rural water reuse, biotechnology, and economics and water marketing. Participants in the listening session identified 19 Bold Steps that USDA and particularly the REE Mission Area could take to move closer to solutions for agricultural water security. The presentation will discuss the results of this listening session and describe the progress being made to expand research, education, extension, and economic efforts within USDA related to water supply, allocation, and distribution problems throughout the nation.

Development and impediments to integrated water resource management in Chile are presented. Sustainable water use supports social objectives into the indefinite future without undermining environmental and hydrological integrity. Intern ational consensus exists that integrated water management and watershed management form a sound basis for sustainable water use. Increased water user conflicts, water quality degradation, recognition of economic inefficiencies, acknowledgment of ecologica l flows requirements, and public good issues are leading toward a more integrated and watershed based approach to water management in Chile. Despite these issues and concerted effort since the early 1990s, however, integrated water resource management and watershed management has not yet materialized and progress remains slow. Impediments in Chile to integrated water resource management include opposition due to political dogma and special interest groups, as well as lack of stakeholder participation and e nabling legislation.

It is important to think of the future in a more comprehensive way. The present high-level water policies have good intentions, but little follow-through, giving them a Sysiphean aspect. We need a broad guiding national philosophy directly related to the principles of integrated water management (IWRM) and sustainable development (SD). Both IWRM and SD require a uniform set of planning and management principles, consistently applied. A national water policy would be a good starting-point. In the absence of a central federal water infrastructure agency or an interagency council, a President's Water Council may be the needed interim solution. There is a Pandora's box of current difficulties in federal water management, but we can always have hope that among the changes that are surely coming we will have positive solutions.

Recent developments in water resource management include efforts to use the resource in a sustainable manner. Sustainable water use supports social objectives into the indefinite future without undermining environmental and hydrologic integrity. Key aspects are incorporation of mechanisms to insure ecological viability and recognition of the economic value of water. California is a wealthy state, with a complex mix of rules and infrastructure to move water to areas of demand deficit. Many mechanisms exist to allocate water and protect river ecology. There is continued degradation of river habitat due to an imbalance in water allocation. Markets mechanisms have been slowly introduced and are advocated to reallocate water to higher valued uses and the environment. There is widespread support for environmental concerns in the state, reflected in a willingness to pay for environmental water, water use behavior change, and legislative mandates. The CALFED Bay-Delta program and Central Valley Project Improvement Act include provisions to better reach a balance between the environment and other uses, including water transfers for instream flows using public and private money. Most water transactions are subject to environmental impact assessment, with most involving public agencies due to water passage through the Delta and/or wheeling through federal or state project infrastructure. Water allocation and distribution management in Chile is characterized by broad private-sector involvement based on historical participation in agricultural communities and reinforced in the Water Code of 1981, which encourages market transactions to redistribute water. Environmental integrity of river courses is endangered due to increased diversions, impoundment release schedules, water quality, and introduction of exotic species. Instream flows are not afforded legal status or explicit protection in the Water Code. Since 1994, new water rights petitions cannot infringe minimum instream flows. Currently, incremental environmental impacts are not readily apparent as more diversions occur, especially since an environmental baseline is not available in most areas. Many rivers are overallocated; when dormant water rights are exercised, environmental water will be taxed further. Water rights transfers occur between private parties and do not require environmental impact assessment; new infrastructure development may require regulatory approval. No transactions have occurred to secure additional environmental water. In both countries initial allocation rules have permitted overallocation of water rights. Water markets and transfers for environmental benefit require: (1) public and legislative support, (2) a management framework that takes into account environmental effects, and (3) income and willingness to pay levels that can compete with more traditional offstream uses.

In the quarter of a century since the presentation of Schad's 1976 paper on the historical development of water resources planning in the United States at the Society's Bicentennial Convention in Philadelphia the nation has experienced a gradual change in water resources planning. Multi-objective and river basin planning with a primary focus on the use of water to promote economic development had peaked in the mid 1970s. Forecasts of lower total demands for water and a shift in concern to environmental quality as a primary objective led to planning based on federal regulaliton for the remainder of the century. The change has not come about in a linear progression, but in a series of ad hoc steps. The Water Resources Council's (WRC) Principles and Standards for multi-objective planning were replaced by Principles and Guidelines in which economic development was the governing objective, with environmental quality as a secondary, less important objective. The emphasis on federally led planning, with coordinated federal and state efforts by the WRC, also shifted to require increased non-federal cost sharing for planning of traditional water resource programs. At the same time the technological attack on water pollution legislated by the 1972 Water Pollution Control Act Amendments also engendered large expenditures for pollution abatement through regulatory approaches. As we proceed into the third millennium new emphasis on planning to protect our water infrastructure from terrorist attack and to sustain vital services must also become more prominent in planning for water management. In addition, as overall demand begins to again increase later in the21 st century a return to multi-objective planning including water quality and environmental attributes is needed to effectively use our finite water resources.

Groundwater banking options to meet growing water demand in California are reviewed. First, an overview of groundwater banking issues is addressed within the context of water market transactions; second, formulation of the groundwater component of a water resource economics optimization model CALVIN is presented. Water management in California is made up of a complex system of interconnected reservoirs and canals that involve federal, state, local, and private entities that reflect social and historical response to the disequilibria between natural supply and demand. Water must be shared among and within agricultural, urban, recreation, and environmental uses. The Central Valley Project Improvement Act and the CALFED Bay-Delta Accord address reconciling divergent interests of different water user groups and pledge to improve environmental river conditions that have degraded substantially since water supply infrastructure was constructed in the 20th century. Advocates call for increased use of market mechanisms to reallocate water. One innovative approach is to bank groundwater.

Water marketing in Southern California has been increasingly sought to augment water supply for both urban and agricultural users, although it has yet to become a wide spread mechanism of water allocation. This paper explores the potential and limitations for Southern California water markets using an economic-engineering network flow optimization model, CALVIN. CALVIN is used to identify the most limiting constraints to a free water market in Southern California, to estimate how a market would affect overall Southern California water use, to preliminarily assess the economic benefit of more flexible policies, and to explore the characteristics of a free market. Results from CALVIN suggest substantial economic benefits exist for implementing water market mechanisms and these economic benefits could be achieved with relatively small quantities of reallocation of agricultural water. An ideal water market in Southern California also would reduce pressure to increase imports from the State Water Project and the Colorado River as higher valued urban water shortages are decreased.

The need for effective international co-operation among riparian countries is greater now than ever before. The demand for water in all countries is escalating and increasingly the harmful effects of activities in upstream countries are being observed. Over a third of the 200 international river basins are not covered by an international agreement; only some 30 have co-operative institutional arrangements. Clearly, efforts are needed to formulate and reach agreement on an international "code of conduct" or convention in the utilization of shared water basins so that the water needs of some countries are not undermined by irresponsible utilization of water resources by others. Improved international co-operation is also necessary regarding the transfer of knowledge and technology in the water resources field. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses, 1998, sets the standard for all agreements involving the shared use of transboundary water resources. It specifically establishes the dual criteria of "equitable and reasonable utilization" of the water resources and the need to "exchange data and consult on the possible effects of planned measures on the condition" of the water resource. The U.N. Convention provides the overall framework for transboundary water sharing. However, despite the presence of the Convention, specific agreements are necessary to implement effective water sharing. This paper provides a limited overview on the extent of the historical problems of transboundary water sharing, reviews the different mechanisms that have been adopted to resolve the problems, and introduces a series of model agreements that can be used to assist in resolving water sharing conflicts.

The formal water market system in Chile is presented, focusing on obstacles to economically, environmentally, and socially efficient use of water. In Chile water resources availability varies substantially by longitudinal location, with arid and semiarid conditions in the north and center of the country, the principal areas of population and economic activity. Water distribution management is characterized by broad private-sector involvement based on historical participation in agricultural communities and reinforced in the Water Code of 1981, which encourages market transactions to redistribute water. Other water management sectors are less developed. The overall water resources management system is subject to weak and fragmented oversight by numerous government institutions that sometimes have competing and overlapping responsibilities. Water market transactions have been limited in magnitude due to physical limitations, an incomplete economic framework, administrative difficulties, weaknesses in other management sectors, and social attitudes. In addition, environmental concerns and social cost are not directly considered in the present system. Water markets can serve to redistribute water where it is scarce and there is competition for the resource. However, a comprehensive supportive framework must be in place to assist free water market transactions, one that addresses the multiuse nature of water and that considers economic, environmental, and social objectives.