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Background: Malaria vector control methods involving the use of pyrethroids remain the strategies being used against malaria vectors in Ghana. These methods include the use of long-lasting insecticidal nets and indoor residual spraying in many areas in Ghana. However, there is evidence that pyrethroid resistance is widespread in many areas in Ghana. Synergists have been shown to be useful in inhibiting the enzymes that are responsible for the development of resistance and hence enhance the insecticide susceptibility of Anopheles gambiae sensu lato ( s.l.) in many areas. The present study investigated the effect of piperonyl butoxide (PBO) on the susceptibility status of An. gambiae s.l. across some sentinel sites in Ghana. Methods: Three to five day old An. gambiae s.l. reared from larvae were used in WHO susceptibility tube assays. Batches of 20-25 female adult An. gambiae s.l. were exposed simultaneously to the insecticide alone and to the PBO + insecticide. The knock down rate after 60 min and mortality at 24 h were recorded. Results: Deltamethrin and permethrin resistance of An. gambiae s.l. was observed in all the sites in 2015 and 2016. The mortality after 24 h post exposure for deltamethrin ranged from 16.3% in Weija to 82.3% in Kade, whereas that for permethrin ranged from 3.8% in Gomoa Obuasi to 91.3% in Prestea. A significant increase in susceptibility to deltamethrin and less to permethrin was observed during both 2015 and 2016 years in most of the sites when An. gambiae s.l. mosquitoes were pre-exposed to PBO. Conclusion: Findings from this study showed that the use of PBO significantly enhanced the susceptibility of An. gambiae s.l. mosquitoes in most of the sentinel sites. It is recommended that vector control strategies incorporating PBO as a synergist can be effective in killing mosquitoes in the presence of deltamethrin and permethrin resistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Indoor residual spraying (IRS) is being implemented as one of the malaria prevention methods in the Northern Region of Ghana. Changes in longevity, sporozoite and entomological inoculation rates (EIRs) of major malaria vectors were monitored to assess the impact of IRS in selected districts. Methods: Monthly human landing catches (HLCs) were used to collect mosquitoes from sentinel sites in three adjacent districts between July 2009 and December 2014: Savelugu Nanton (SND) where IRS had been implemented from 2008 to 2014; Tolon Kumbungu (TKD) where IRS had been implemented between 2008 and 2012 and Tamale Metropolis (TML) with no history of IRS. Mosquitoes were morphologically identified to species level and into sibling species, using PCR. Samples of Anopheles gambiae sensu lato (s.l.) were examined for parity and infectivity. EIR was calculated from biting and infectivity rates of malaria vectors. Results: Parity rates of An. gambiae s.l. decreased significantly (p < 0.0001) in SND from 44.8% in 2011 to 28.1% by 2014, and in TKD from 53.3% in 2011 to 46.6% in 2012 (p = 0.001). However 2 years after IRS was discontinued in TKD, the proportion of parous An. gambiae s.l. increased significantly to 68.5% in 2014 (p < 0.0001). Parity rates in the unsprayed district remained high throughout the study period, ranging between 68.6% in 2011 and 72.3% in 2014. The sum of monthly EIRs post-IRS season (July-December) in SND ranged between 2.1 and 6.3 infective bites/person/season (ib/p/s) during the 3 years that the district was sprayed with alphacypermethrin. EIR in SND was reduced to undetectable levels when the insecticide was switched to pirimiphos methyl CS in 2013 and 2014. Two years after IRS was withdrawn from TKD the sum of monthly EIRs (July-December) increased by about fourfold from 41.8 ib/p/s in 2012 to 154.4 ib/p/s in 2014. The EIR in the control area, TML, ranged between 35 ib/p/s in 2009 to 104.71 ib/p/s by 2014. Conclusions: This study demonstrates that IRS application did have a significant impact on entomological indicators of malaria transmission in the IRS project districts of Northern Ghana. Transmission indicators increased following the withdrawal of IRS from Tolon Kumbungu District. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The development and spread of insecticide resistance among malaria vectors, is a threat to the continued effectiveness of interventions to control and eliminate the disease. The status of insecticide resistance among malaria vector populations at two sites in Kome, southern Chad, was evaluated to inform decisions on vector control. Methods: Mosquito larvae were collected from temporary rain-filled and semi-permanent breeding places at two sites and reared in a laboratory. Emerging Anopheles gambiae (senso lato) (s.l.) adults were morphologically identified, sorted and evaluated for susceptibility to WHOPES recommended insecticides. Standardized biomolecular and biochemical methods were used to determine sibling species and molecular forms: knockdown resistant alleles (kdr-w) for pyrethroids and DDT; acetylcholinesterase-1 resistant alleles for organophosphate and carbamates; biochemical resistance through measurement of the levels of non-specific esterase (α and β), oxidase and glutathione-s-transferases activities. Results: Anopheles gambiae (s.l.) was the main vector group in the two study sites and comprised of Anopheles gambiae (senso stricto) (s.s.) and An. arabiensis, respectively, at 71 and 29 % in Site A, and 60 and 40 % at Site B. Anopheles gambiae (s.s.) was composed of M (Anopheles coluzzii) and S [nominotypical An. gambiae (s.s.)] molecular forms. Anopheles coluzzii accounted for over 98 % of the sub-group. There was extensive phenotypic resistance to pyrethroids, DDT and carbamates, but full susceptibility to organophosphates. Population-wide frequency of knockdown resistant allele in An. gambiae (s.l.) was 43 homozygous (RR), 19 heterozygous (RS) and 38 % homozygous susceptible (SS). When segregated by species and molecular forms, An. coluzzii had the highest kdr-w frequency of 37.4 homozygous resistant alleles, and 17.5 % heterozygous, with 8.3 % homozygote susceptible alleles. An. gambiae (s.s.) had 1 % homozygous resistant allele. Levels of esterase, oxidase and glutathione-s-transferases were not significantly different compared to fully susceptible laboratory raised An. gambiae (s.s.) Kisumu reference, although few individuals showed significant elevation of esterases (> 0.04 μg/protein), indicating a likely start of biochemical enzyme resistance. Conclusions: There is an urgent need for action to stop and reverse significant insecticide resistance in the area. A comprehensive entomological surveillance and monitoring program is needed to understand the full extent of resistance to enable realistic insecticide resistance management strategy, and also to track future changes in the vector populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The increasing spread of insecticide resistance in malaria vectors has been well documented across sub-Saharan Africa countries. The influence of irrigation on increasing vector resistance is poorly understood, and is critical to successful and ethical implementation of food security policies. This study investigated the insecticide resistance status of An. gambiae (s.l.) mosquitoes collected from the irrigated rice area of Okyereko, a village containing about 42 hectares of irrigated field within an irrigation project plan in the Central Region of Ghana. Large amounts of insecticides, herbicides and fertilizers are commonly used in the area to boost the annual production of the rice. Methods: Mosquito larvae were collected and adults were assayed from the F1 progeny. The resistance status, allele and genotype were characterized using WHO susceptibility testing and PCR methods respectively. Results: The An. gambiae (s.l.) populations from Okyereko are highly resistant to DDT and pyrethroid insecticides, with possible involvement of metabolic mechanisms including the elevation of P450 and GST enzyme as well as P-gp activity. The population was mostly composed of An. coluzzii specimens (more than 96 %) with kdr and ace-1 frequencies of 0.9 and 0.2 %, respectively. Conclusion: This study brings additional information on insecticide resistance and the characterization of An. gambiae (s.l.) mosquitoes from Okyereko, which can be helpful in decision making for vector control programmes in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Malaria control efforts in Ghana have reduced the countrywide average malaria prevalence from 71 % in 2000 to about 51 % in 2012; however, its main focus is on symptomatic malaria. If further progress is to be made, parasite reservoirs in asymptomatic carriers need to be moved into focus. This study profiles asymptomatic Plasmodium spp. parasitaemia amongst residents of mountainous Kwahu-Mpraeso in the Eastern region of Ghana. Methods: A cross-sectional study of 360 residents was carried out from October to December 2013. This included recording demographics, malaria testing of asymptomatic residents, and gathering of their malaria history. Assessment of malaria transmission was done with molecular identification of vectors, determination of sporozoite rate, insecticide resistance status and biting pattern. Univariate and multivariate analysis were used to establish risk determinants. Results: In Mpraeso, in the Kwahu highland of Eastern Region, children were at higher risk of asymptomatic parasitaemia, thereby contributing to the parasite reservoir and hence sustained malaria transmission. As well, findings suggested Hb AC genotype influenced susceptibility to asymptomatic malaria with 8.03-fold increase in odds (univariate) and 11.92-fold higher odds (multivariate) than the normal Hb AA. The mosquito vector predominant in the area was Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto of the homozygous pyrethroid resistant form (RR); with biting mainly occurring indoors. Conclusion: For an effective malaria control in this area, interventions should be formulated and implemented to target asymptomatic parasite reservoirs; especially in children and people with Hb AC. The dominant vector species An. gambiae s.s. and its feeding patterns of biting indoors should also be considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The Lymphatic Filariasis Elimination Programme in Ghana involves annual mass drug administration (MDA) of ivermectin and albendazole to persons living in endemic areas. This is repeated annually for 4-6 years to span across the reproductive lifespan of adult worms. In order to stimulate participation of community members in the MDA programme, this study was carried out to understand local views on transmission, management and prevention of the disease. The study also presents baseline transmission indices and microfilariae prevalence in the human population in eight endemic communities of coastal Ghana prior to the MDA. Methods: A descriptive survey was carried out to explore perceptions on causes, treatment and prevention of lymphatic filariasis. Perceptions on community participation in disease control programmes were also assessed. After participants were selected by cluster sampling and 100 μl of blood sampled from each individual and examined for mf microfilariae. A similar volume of blood was used to determine the presence of circulating filarial antigen. Mosquitoes were collected simultaneously at all sites by human landing catches for 4 days per month over a six-month period. All Anopheles mosquitoes were dissected and examined for the larval stages of the parasite following which molecular identification of both vector and parasite was done. Results: Eight hundred and four persons were interviewed, of which 284 (32.9 %; CI 31.1-34.5) acknowledged elephantiasis and hydrocoele as health related issues in the communities. Thirty-three people (3.8 %; CI 2.1-5.5) thought sleeping under bed net could help prevent elephantiasis. Microfilariae prevalence was 4.6 % (43/941) whiles 8.7 % (75/861) were positive for circulating filarial antigen. A total of 17,784 mosquitoes were collected, majority (55.8 %) of which were Anopheles followed by Culex species (40 %). Monthly biting rates ranged between 311 and 6116 bites/person for all the eight communities together. Annual transmission potential values for An. gambiae s.s. and An. funestus were 311.35 and 153.50 respectively. Conclusion: Even though the highest mf density among inhabitants was recorded in a community that had the lowest Anopheles density with Culex species constituting 95 % of all mosquitoes collected, Anopheles gambiae s.s. and An. funestus remained the main vectors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The Global Programme to Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis was launched in 2000 with the goal of interrupting transmission of lymphatic filariasis (LF) through multiple rounds of mass drug administration (MDA). In Guinea, there is evidence of ongoing LF transmission, but little is known about the most densely populated parts of the country, including the capital Conakry. In order to guide the LF control and elimination efforts, serological and entomological surveys were carried out to determine whether or not LF transmission occurs in Conakry. Methods: The prevalence of circulating filarial antigen (CFA) of Wuchereria bancrofti was assessed by an immuno-chromatography test (ICT) in people recruited from all five districts of Conakry. Mosquitoes were collected over a 1-year period, in 195 households in 15 communities. A proportion of mosquitoes were analysed for W. bancrofti, using dissection, loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay and conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Results: CFA test revealed no infection in the 611 individuals examined. A total of 14,334 mosquitoes were collected; 14,135 Culex (98.6 %), 161 Anopheles (1.1 %) and a few other species. Out of 1,312 Culex spp. (9.3 %) and 51 An. gambiae (31.7 %) dissected, none was infected with any stage of the W. bancrofti parasite. However, the LAMP assay revealed that 1.8 % of An. gambiae and 0.31 % of Culex spp. were positive, while PCR determined respective prevalences of 0 % and 0.19 %. Conclusions: This study revealed the presence of W. bancrofti DNA in mosquitoes, despite the apparent absence of infection in the human population. Although MDA interventions are not recommended where the prevalence of ICT is below 1 %, the entomological results are suggestive of the circulation of the parasite in the population of Conakry. Therefore, rigorous surveillance is still warranted so that LF transmission in Conakry would be identified rapidly and adequate responses being implemented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Long lasting Insecticidal nets continue to provide effective protection against disease vectors including mosquitoes that transmit malaria. In many countries, promotion of LLIN usage and ownership has focused on the attainment of universal coverage. However modalities for achieving these objectives remain a challenge in many countries. This paper shares Ghana's experience and strategies adopted to attain universal LLINs coverage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]