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Objective: In this cross-sectional analysis, we explored how return-to-work (RTW) experiences and postinjury pain are associated with opioid use after a workplace injury/illness., Methods: Workers with accepted lost-time claims, compensated by the workers' compensation board in Ontario, Canada were interviewed by telephone 18 months following a work-related physical injury/illness. Participants were asked about their past-year opioid use, current pain, RTW timing and workplace accommodations. Separate logistic regression analyses were conducted to estimate the association between two independent variables and opioid use: one combining the presence of pain with workplace accommodation and a second combining the presence of pain with RTW timing, adjusted for sociodemographic, work, injury and health covariates., Results: Of 1793 participants included in the analysis, 35.6% used opioids more than once in the past 12 months. Compared with those who did not return to work too soon and had no/mild pain, odds of opioid use were higher among those with severe pain, both those who returned too soon (OR 2.90, 95% CI 2.11 to 3.99) and those who did not return too soon (OR 3.01, 95% CI 2.16 to 4.19). Compared with those who had an offer of accommodation and no/mild pain, workers with severe pain and an accommodation offer (OR 2.78, 95% CI 2.16 to 3.57) or without an offer (OR 2.69, 95% CI 1.90 to 3.81) had increased odds of reporting use of opioids., Conclusions: Findings suggest pain is the main factor associated with opioid use after a work-related injury, irrespective of RTW experiences. However, due to the limitations of this exploratory analysis, longitudinal research examining this issue is warranted., Competing Interests: Competing interests: ADF was a member of the Ontario Workplace Safety and Insurance Board’s Drug Advisory Committee during the conduct of this study. The authors have no other competing interests to declare., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2025. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ Group.)

Objectives: To examine the association between precarious employment and risk of occupational injury or illness in Ontario, Canada., Methods: We combined accepted lost-time compensation claims from the Workplace Safety and Insurance Board with labour force statistics to estimate injury and illness rates between January 2016 and December 2019. Precarious employment was imputed using a job exposure matrix and operationalised in terms of temporary employment, low wages, irregular hours, involuntary part-time employment and a multidimensional measure of 'low', 'medium', 'high' and 'very high' probabilities of exposure to precarious employment. Negative binomial regression models examined exposure to precarious employment in relation to risk of occupational injury or illness., Results: After adjusting for age, sex and year, all indicators of precarious employment were associated with increased risk of injury or illness. Workers with 'high' and 'very' high' exposure to precarious employment presented a nearly threefold risk of injury or illness (rate ratio (RR): 2.81, 95% CI 2.73 to 2.89; RR: 2.82, 95% CI 2.74 to 2.90). Further adjustment for physical demands and workplace hazards attenuated associations, though a statistically and substantively significant exposure-outcome relationship persisted for workers with 'high' and 'very high' exposures to precarious employment (RR: 1.65, 95% CI 1.58 to 1.72; RR: 2.00, 95% CI 1.92 to 2.08)., Conclusions: Workers exposed to precarious employment are more likely to sustain a lost-time injury or illness in Ontario, Canada. Workplace health and safety strategies should consider the role of precarious employment as an occupational hazard and a marker of work injury risk., Competing Interests: Competing interests: All authors worked for the Institute for Work & Health while this project was completed. PMS is an editor at Occupational and Environmental Medicine. He was not involved in any part of the peer review process for this manuscript., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2024. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Objectives: To understand rates of work-related COVID-19 (WR-C19) infection by occupational exposures across waves of the COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario, Canada., Methods: We combined workers' compensation claims for COVID-19 with data from Statistics Canada's Labour Force Survey, to estimate rates of WR-C19 among workers spending the majority of their working time at the workplace between 1 April 2020 and 30 April 2022. Occupational exposures, imputed using a job exposure matrix, were whether the occupation was public facing, proximity to others at work, location of work and a summary measure of low, medium and high occupational exposure. Negative binomial regression models examined the relationship between occupational exposures and risk of WR-C19, adjusting for covariates., Results: Trends in rates of WR-C19 differed from overall COVID-19 cases among the working-aged population. All occupational exposures were associated with increased risk of WR-C19, with risk ratios for medium and high summary exposures being 1.30 (95% CI 1.09 to 1.55) and 2.46 (95% CI 2.10 to 2.88), respectively, in fully adjusted models. The magnitude of associations between occupational exposures and risk of WR-C19 differed across waves of the pandemic, being weakest for most exposures in period March 2021 to June 2021, and highest at the start of the pandemic and during the Omicron wave (December 2021 to April 2022)., Conclusions: Occupational exposures were consistently associated with increased risk of WR-C19, although the magnitude of this relationship differed across pandemic waves in Ontario. Preparation for future pandemics should consider more accurate reporting of WR-C19 infections and the potential dynamic nature of occupational exposures., Competing Interests: Competing interests: PMS is an editor at Occupational and Environmental Medicine. He was not involved in any part of the peer-review process for this manuscript., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2024. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Objectives: While most individuals physically injured at work will make a complete medical recovery, a portion of workers will experience persistent pain following their injury. This study estimated persistent pain prevalence and its association with health and return-to-work outcomes 18 months following the incidence of a disabling work-related injury., Methods: We studied 1131 workers disabled by a work-related injury who were recruited from a sampling frame of disability benefit claimants in Ontario, Canada. Work injuries and claim benefits characteristics from administrative data were linked with measures of work status, pain symptoms, and physical and mental health obtained from telephone interviews completed 18 months postinjury. Associations of persistent pain symptoms with health and employment outcomes 18 months postinjury were estimated using multinomial and linear regression., Results: Roughly 30% of participants reported no pain symptoms in the previous 4 weeks, 45% reported mild pain symptoms and 25% reported severe pain symptoms accompanied by substantial functional impairment. Workers with severe pain symptoms were more likely to not be currently working at 18 months (33%) vs those without pain symptoms (16%), and had poorer self-reported physical and mental health. Workers with severe pain symptoms had higher probabilities of benefit durations of 12-18 months (OR=9.35), higher lost-earnings costs (~47.7% higher) and higher healthcare expenditure costs at 18 months (~125.9% higher) compared with those with no pain symptoms., Conclusions: Persistent pain symptom prevalence 18 months postinjury is high among workers disabled by a work-related injury and associated with substantial functional impairment and longer wage replacement benefit duration., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2022. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Objectives: The objective of our study was to estimate the rate of workplace outbreak-associated cases of COVID-19 by industry in labour market participants aged 15-69 years who reported working the majority of hours outside the home in Ontario, Canada., Methods: We conducted a population-based cross-sectional study of COVID-19 workplace outbreaks and associated cases reported in Ontario between 1 April 2020 and 31 March 2021. All outbreaks were manually classified into two-digit North American Industry Classification System codes. We obtained monthly denominator estimates from the Statistics Canada Labour Force Survey to estimate the incidence of outbreak-associated cases per 100 000 000 hours among individuals who reported the majority of hours were worked outside the home. We performed this analysis across industries and in three distinct time periods., Results: Overall, 12% of cases were attributed to workplace outbreaks among working-age adults across our study period. While incidence varied across the time periods, the five industries with the highest incidence rates across our study period were agriculture, healthcare and social assistance, food manufacturing, educational services, and transportation and warehousing., Conclusions: Certain industries have consistently increased the incidence of COVID-19 over the course of the pandemic. These results may assist in ongoing efforts to reduce transmission of COVID-19 by prioritising resources, as well as industry-specific guidance, vaccination and public health messaging., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2022. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Objective: To replicate, in a more recent time period, a previous cross-sectional study to estimate the association between unionisation and the risk of workers' compensation injury claims., Methods: The sampling frame was workers' compensation company account records in the industrial, commercial and institutional construction sector in the province of Ontario, Canada, 2012-2018. Company unionisation status was determined through linkage with records of unionised contractors. Outcomes were cumulative counts of workers' compensation injury claims, aggregated to company business. Risk ratios were estimated with multivariable negative binomial regression models. Models were also fit separately to lost-time claims stratified by company size., Results: Business unionisation was associated with a lower lost-time claim incidence (crude risk ratio, CRR=0.69, 95% CI 0.65 to 0.74); adjusted risk ratio, ARR=0.75, 95% CI 0.71 to 0.80). In subgroup analyses, the magnitude of the ARR declined as company size decreased and was not statistically significant for the smallest-sized companies of ≤4 full-time equivalent employees. Unionisation was associated (positively) with the incidence of no-lost-time claims in a crude model, but not in an adjusted one (CRR=1.80, 95% CI 1.71 to 1.89; ARR=1.04, 95% CI 0.98 to 1.09)., Conclusions: Company unionisation was associated with a lower risk of lost-time workers' compensation injury claims, corroborating a similar study from an earlier time period. The protective effect of unionisation declined as company size decreased. In contrast to the previous study, a positive relationship between company unionisation and no-lost-time claim incidence was not found, due in part to a methodological refinement., Competing Interests: Competing interests: The contract provided no financial benefit to the authors and allowed for IWH to freely publish the study results. OCS was not involved in the scientific aspects of the study nor in the reporting of its results., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2022. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Objective: To determine the number of latent body mass index (BMI) trajectories from 1994 to 2010 among working Canadians and their association with concurrent trajectories in work environment exposures., Methods: Data of employed individuals from the longitudinal Canadian National Population Health Survey were used. Group-based trajectory modelling was used to determine the number of latent BMI trajectories and concurrent psychosocial work environment trajectories. A multinomial logistic regression of BMI trajectory membership on trajectories in work environment dimensions (skill discretion, decision latitude, psychological demands, job insecurity, social support, physical exertion) was then explored., Results: Four latent BMI trajectories corresponding to normal, overweight, obese and very obese BMI values were found. Each trajectory saw an increase in BMI (~2-4 kg/m 2 ) over the 17-year period. A higher decision authority trajectory was associated with lower odds of belonging to the overweight and obese trajectories when compared with the normal weight trajectory. A decreasing physical exertion trajectory was associated with higher odds of belonging to the very obese trajectory when compared with the normal weight trajectory., Conclusions: Four BMI trajectories are present in the Canadian workforce; all trajectories saw increased body weight over time. Declining physical exertion and lower decision authority in the work environment over time is associated with increased likelihood of being in overweight and obese trajectories., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2020. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Objectives: Serious mental illness is common among those who have experienced a physical workplace injury, yet little is known about mental health service use in this population. This study aims to estimate the proportion of the workplace musculoskeletal injury population experiencing a mental illness, the proportion who access mental health services through the workers' compensation system and the factors associated with likelihood of accessing services., Methods: A longitudinal cohort study was conducted with a random sample of 615 workers' compensation claimants followed over three survey waves between June 2014 and July 2015. The primary outcome was receiving any type of mental health service use during this period, as determined by linking survey responses to administrative compensation system records for the 18 months after initial interview., Results: Of 181 (29.4%) participants who met the case definition for a serious mental illness at one or more of the three interviews, 75 (41.4%) accessed a mental health service during the 18-month observation period. Older age (OR=0.96, 95% CI 0.93 to 0.99) and achieving sustained return to work (OR=0.27, 95% CI 0.11 to 0.69) were associated with reduced odds of mental health service use. Although not significant, being born in Australia was associated with an increased odds of service use (OR=2.23, 95% CI 0.97 to 5.10)., Conclusions: The proportion of injured workers with musculoskeletal conditions experiencing mental illness is high, yet the proportion receiving mental health services is low. More work is needed to explore factors associated with mental health service use in this population, including the effect of returning to work., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2020. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Objectives: The aim of the study is to compare trends in the incidence of injury resulting from workplace violence for men and women at the population level over the period 2002-2015 among working-age adults in Ontario, Canada., Methods: Administrative records of injury resulting from workplace violence were obtained from two population-based data sources in Ontario: 21 228 lost-time workers' compensation claims (2002-2015) and 13 245 records of non-scheduled emergency department visits (2004-2014), where the main problem was attributed to a workplace violence event. Denominator counts were estimated from labour force surveys conducted by Statistics Canada, stratified by age and sex. Age-standardised rates were calculated using the direct method., Results: Over the observation period, workplace violence incidence rates were in the range of 0.2-0.5 per 1000 full-time equivalent workers. Incidence rates of injury due to workplace violence among women increased over the observation period, with an average annual per cent change (APC) of 2.8% (95% CI 1.7% to 3.9%) in compensation claims and 2.7% (95% CI 1.0% to 4.4%) in emergency department visits. In contrast, there was no change in workplace violence injury rates among men in compensation claims (APC: -0.2% (95% CI -1.2% to 0.9%)) or in emergency department visits (APC: -0.5% (95% CI -1.6% to 0.6%)). A pronounced increase in workplace violence injury rates was observed in the education sector with an APC=7.0% (95% CI 5.6% to 8.5%) for women and an APC=4.1% (95% CI 0.9% to 7.4%) for men., Conclusions: Differences in the risk of injury resulting from workplace violence for women relative to men in Ontario between 2002 and 2015 were verified by two data sources. The relative risk of violence for men and women also differed across industries., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2019. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Objectives: To examine the longitudinal relationship between incidence of diagnosed chronic disease and work status and hours worked., Methods: A dynamic cohort approach was taken to construct our study sample using the Canadian National Population Health Survey. Participant inclusion criteria included being employed and without a chronic health condition in the survey cycle prior to diagnosis, and participation in consecutive surveys following diagnosis. Each respondent was matched with up to 5 respondents without a diagnosed health condition. The direct and indirect associations between chronic disease and work status and hours worked following diagnosis were examined using probit and linear regression path models. Separate models were developed for arthritis, back problems, diabetes, hypertension and heart disease., Results: We identified 799 observations with a diagnosis of arthritis, 858 with back pain, 178 with diabetes, 569 with hypertension and 163 with heart disease, which met our selection criteria. An examination of total effects at time 1 and time 2 showed that, excluding hypertension, chronic disease diagnosis was related to work loss. The time 2 effect of chronic disease diagnosis on work loss was mediated through time 1 work status. With the exception of heart disease, an incident case of chronic disease was not related to changes in work hours among observations with continuous work participation., Conclusions: Chronic disease can result in work loss following diagnosis. Research is required to understand how modifying occupational conditions may benefit employment immediately after diagnosis., (Published by the BMJ Publishing Group Limited. For permission to use (where not already granted under a licence) please go to http://www.bmj.com/company/products-services/rights-and-licensing/.)

Objective: From 2004 to 2008, the prevention system in Ontario, Canada ran the High Risk Firm Initiative, an injury-experience based targeted consultation or inspection programme. Our objective was to establish whether prevention system targeting of firms was effective in improving injury outcomes., Methods: Randomised controlled parallel groups. Population included all manufacturing firms registered with the Ontario Workplace Safety & Insurance Board in 2005. Firms ranked between the 2nd and 10th percentile on a composite measure of occupational health and safety performance were randomised to three study arms in 2006: targeted for Health & Safety Association (HSA) consultation, targeted for Ministry of Labour (MOL) inspection, or services as usual. Data included firm characteristics (sector, size, years in business, region, branches), work injury claims 2002-2008 and measures of consulting and inspecting activity. Negative binomial generalised estimating equations modelled claim and disability day rates by study arm and year, controlling for firm characteristics., Results: Among 2153 firms, firm characteristics and 2002-2005 rates of work injury claims and disability days were similar across arms. Firm outcomes were significantly different from year to year, but study arm by year interactions were insignificant indicating similar trends for all three study arms. 83% of HSA targeted firms were contacted and 63% engaged while 75% of MOL targeted firms were inspected with orders written in 56%., Conclusions: Consultation and enforcement programmes as implemented were not sufficient to reduce work injury outcomes over 21 month follow-up. Lack of benefit could be due to non-specific firm selection methods, limited firm participation in interventions, low intervention intensity or insensitivity of available outcomes.

Objective: To examine the proportion of a recent cohort of immigrants to Canada who were working in jobs that were more physically demanding than those in which they worked before migration to Canada., Design: Longitudinal cohort of immigrants to Canada with occupational position measured before and 2 and 4 years after arrival in Canada., Subjects: Respondents to Statistics Canada's Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC). The LSIC surveyed a representative sample of immigrants, aged 15 and older, who arrived in Canada between November 2000 and December 2001. For the purpose of this study, the sample was restricted to respondents who had worked before immigrating and were working when re-interviewed 2 (n = 4331) or 4 (n = 4238) years after arrival in Canada., Main Outcome: Employment in an occupation with higher physical demands than that employed in before arrival in Canada., Results: Respondents with less proficiency at speaking English and family class or refugee applicants were the most likely to be employed in occupations with higher physical demands both 2 and 4 years after arrival in Canada., Conclusions: Employment in a more physically demanding occupation may pose particular risks of workplace injury. In this sample of immigrants to Canada, respondents with poorer English skills and refugees (factors that may increase this risk) were more likely to be employed in more physically demanding occupations. Greater attention to the prevention of workplace injuries among particular groups of new immigrants to Canada is required.

Objectives: To examine the burden of work-related injuries among immigrants to Canada compared to Canadian-born labour force participants., Methods: Using data from the 2003 and 2005 Canadian Community Health Surveys (n = 99,115), two nationally representative population samples, we examined the risk of self-reported, activity limiting work-related injuries among immigrants with varying time periods since arrival in Canada. Models were adjusted for hours of work in the last 12 months as well as various demographic and work-related variables., Results: Immigrant men in their first 5 years in Canada reported lower rates of activity limiting injuries compared to Canadian-born respondents. Surprisingly, the percentage of injuries that required medical attention was much higher among recent immigrants compared to Canadian-born respondents, resulting in an increased risk of activity limiting injuries requiring medical attention among immigrant men compared to Canadian-born labour force participants. No excess risk was found among female immigrants compared to Canadian-born female labour market participants., Conclusions: Immigrant men in their first 5 years in Canada are at increased risk of work-related injuries that require medical attention. A similar risk is not present among immigrant women. Further, given differences in the number of activity limiting injuries requiring medical attention across immigrant groups, we believe this excess risk among immigrant men may be underestimated in the current data source. Future research should attempt to fully capture the barriers faced by immigrants in obtaining safe employment, the number of injuries that are sustained by immigrants while working, and the consequences of these injuries.

Objectives: There is growing evidence that occupational injuries influence workers' emotional and physical wellbeing, extending healthcare use beyond what is covered by the Workers' Compensation Board (WCB)., Methods: The authors used an administrative database that links individual publicly funded healthcare and WCB data for the population of British Columbia (BC), Canada. They examined change in service use, relative to one year before the injury, for workers who required time off for their injuries (lost time = LT) and compared them to other injured workers (no lost time = NLT) and individuals in the population who were not injured (non-injured = NI)., Results: LT workers increased physician visits (22%), hospital days (50%), and mental healthcare use (43% physician visits; and 70% hospital days) five years after the injury, relative to the year before the injury, at a higher rate than the NI group. For the NLT workers, the level of increased use following the injury was between that of these two groups. These patterns persisted when adjusting for registration in the BC Medical Service Plan (MSP) and several workplace characteristics., Conclusions: Although the WCB system is the primary mechanism for processing claims and providing information about workplace injury, it is clear that the consequences of workplace injury extend beyond what is covered by the WCB into the publicly funded healthcare system.

Objective: The purpose of this study was to identify risk factors of work injuries among Canadian adolescents and young adults and to examine provincial differences in work injury rates., Methods: Information on work and injuries were obtained from a representative sample of 14 541 Canadians aged 15-24 years. Respondents reported medically attended, work related injuries in the past 12 months, work hours, and type of occupation. A multivariate logistic regression on likelihood of work injury included demographic and work variables, as well as province of residence., Results: Even when factors expected to vary by province such as occupation were statistically controlled, Saskatchewan youth were about twice as likely to be injured at work compared to Ontario youth. Type of job was a major correlate of injury risk, with all jobs showing higher risk than administrative clerical jobs. Even with type of job controlled, visible minorities, students, and 15-17 year olds had a reduced likelihood of work injury than their counterparts., Conclusions: Many young Canadians sustain work injuries that have clear medical costs and potential long term health consequences. Individual level explanations for youth's increased risk for workplace injuries (for example, inexperience or developmental factors) need to be supplemented with a better understanding of the broader social, economic, and political factors across jurisdictions.

Aims: To describe the decline in injury rates between 1990 and 2000 within occupations stratified across three levels of physical demands and gender, adjusting for industry, in Canada's largest province., Methods: Records of injury compensation claims were obtained from the Ontario Workplace Safety & Insurance Board. The population likely to be insured by the Ontario Workplace Safety & Insurance Board was estimated from Statistics Canada's Labour Force Survey. Injury rates were calculated by three broad levels of physical demands, separately for men and women., Results: Injury rates decreased across each grouping of lower physical demands at work for both men and women, with the largest absolute differences in manual occupational groups (high physical demands). Occupations classified as manual (high physical demands) and mixed (moderate physical demands) showed larger differences in injury rates between genders than did non-manual (low physical demands), although the directions of these differences were not always consistent across different natures of injury classification., Conclusions: The absolute reduction in injury rates in Ontario between 1990 and 2000 was dominated by the reduction in injury rates for men and women in manual and mixed occupations. However, not all types of injury have declined to the same extent. A large proportion of differences in injury rates between men and women can be attributed to the differential labour force participation across occupations and industries, as well as the differential tasks within occupational groups.