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Karin Leander, Ole Raaschou-Nielsen, W M Monique Verschuren, Hans Concin, Francesco Forastiere, Ulla Arthur Hvidtfeldt, Debora Rizzuto, Torben Sigsgaard, Bente Oftedal, Massimo Stafoggia, Gianluca Severi, Evangelia Samoli, Gerard Hoek, Petter Ljungman, Jeanette Therming Jørgensen, Marie-Christine Boutron-Ruault, Matthias Ketzel, Jørgen Brandt, Terese Bekkevold, Shuo Liu, Jie Chen, Maciej Strak, Gabriele Nagel, Matteo Renzi, Gudrun Weinmayr, Anne Tjønneland, Ole Hertel, John S. Gulliver, Karl-Heinz Jöckel, Bert Brunekreef, Danielle Vienneau, Kathrin Wolf, Göran Pershagen, Amar Mehta, Annette Peters, Daniela Fecht, Nicole A.H. Janssen, Kees de Hoogh, Yvonne T. van der Schouw, Giulia Cesaroni, Tom Bellander, Sophia Rodopoulou, Mette Sørensen, Mariska Bauwelinck, Jochem O. Klompmaker, Sara Schramm, Richard Atkinson, Klea Katsouyanni, Zorana Jovanovic Andersen, Patrik K. E. Magnusson, Anton Lager, Barbara Hoffmann, Faculty of Economic and Social Sciences and Solvay Business School, Sociology, Centre de recherche en épidémiologie et santé des populations (CESP), Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines (UVSQ)-Assistance publique - Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP) (AP-HP)-Hôpital Paul Brousse-Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM)-Université Paris-Saclay, Institut Gustave Roussy (IGR), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA: R-82811201, Health Effects Institute, HEI: 4954-RFA14-3/16-5-3, Funding: This work was supported by Health Effects Institute (HEI) research agreement (grant No 4954-RFA14-3/16-5-3). Research described in this article was conducted under contract to the HEI, an organisation jointly funded by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (assistance award No R-82811201) and certain motor vehicle and engine manufacturers. The contents of this article do not necessarily reflect the views of HEI, or its sponsors, nor do they necessarily reflect the views and policies of the EPA or motor vehicle and engine manufacturers. Competing interests: All authors have completed the ICMJE uniform disclosure form at http://www.icmje.org/coi_disclosure.pdf and declare: support from the Health Effects Institute for the submitted work, no financial relationships with any organisations that might have an interest in the submitted work in the previous three years, no other relationships or activities that could appear to have influenced the submitted work. Ethical approval: All included cohort studies were approved by the medical ethics committees in their respective countries. Data sharing: No additional data available. The corresponding author affirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study being reported, that no important aspects of the study have been omitted, and and that any discrepancies from the study as planned (and, if relevant, registered) have been explained.