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The global influence of colonial imperialism has affected the Confucian tradition of Chinese border countries in modern history. France became involved in the establishment of the Vietnamese Nguyen dynasty (1802--1945) under the pretext of protecting Catholic missionaries. Japanese Korea refers to the period when the late Joseon dynasty struggled with colonial rule from 1910-1945. Such historical difficulty caused the transformation of society, culture, and thought in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The new religious movement (NRM) was another cultural phenomenon in the region; many indigenous NRMs appeared, from Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism, to shamanism. Among them, Cao Đài and Daesoon Jinrihoe of Jeungsanism have been the most successful and progressive groups. How did they emerge in these transitional societies? What were their backgrounds? What were their unique teachings? How were they so prosperous even under politico-social persecution? This article explores both new movements' geo-religious nature through a comparative perspective that incorporates the subjects of origin, ethnic and political identity, cosmology, key teachings, sacred sites and rituals, and gender-related leadership. The article argues the critical insight that the two monotheistic syncretic religions of Gucheon Sangje and Cao Dài, under the big bang theory, are each unique, but historically they have also been ethnical grassroots organizations that are nationalistic, independent, anti-colonial, and counter-modern in Sino-Asian society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This essay centers on the role of Christian organizations in the consolidation of democracy in the Philippines, South Korea, and Taiwan as a preliminary study in advance of longer-term exploration of how religious organizations of all persuasions have influenced or abdicated from the ongoing development of democracy once it has become the norm in East Asian nations. In light of the dearth of data concerning the roles of Asian religious institutions in the consolidation of democracy in East Asia, the authors limit the essay to the development of a conceptual framework, referencing the three cases above, to be used for future studies. The Philippines, where the Roman Catholic Church remains active in political causes relative to the other two cases, serves as the framework's control case, against which South Korea and Taiwan, the experimental cases, are compared. The essay asserts that East Asian religious institutions are a case of exceptionalism, based on two arguments. The first is that, when comparing East Asian religious institutions to counterparts elsewhere, they have been the last ones to enter the political arena and the first ones to retreat from it. The second argument is that East Asian religious organizations do not press their potential political weight in normal politics because (1) social, political, and economic conditions of the respective countries dissuade religious organizations' ongoing engagement in politics, or (2) they have a strong inclination to remain remote from politics—or perhaps because of both circumstances. The essay presents evidence of ‘episodic’ involvement of the Roman Catholic Church in politics in the Philippines, and of the ‘transient’ nature of the involvement of religious organizations in South Korea and Taiwan. Further, it reveals that, while the ‘transient’ nature of religious organizations' influence in normal politics is less apparent in Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia, it is in evidence in these areas of East Asia, also. The essay draws a striking comparison between religious institutions elsewhere and those in East Asia by considering the ability of religious organizations in the Middle East, Africa, the United States, Europe, and Latin America to remain engaged in the political sphere and to influence political attitudes and outcomes. It concludes that, in contrast, the political agendas of East Asian religious organizations have been more specifically defined and circumscribed, and their involvement in politics has been less intense and more transient. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]