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Worker polymorphism in ants has evolved repeatedly, with considerable differences in the morphometry of worker subcastes. Such body size differences and especially caste- and subcaste-specific characteristics might significantly influence locomotion. Therefore, we performed a comprehensive locomotion analysis along gradients in both body size and walking speed of Camponotus fellah worker subcastes, and of males, which have rarely been studied to date because of their short life spans associated with mating flights. We provide a detailed description of the morphometry and size differences of C. fellah castes and subcastes and analyse locomotion in the different polymorphic groups in terms of absolute and relative walking speeds (mesosoma lengths per second). Our results reveal that body size and shape affect locomotion behaviour to different extents in the worker subcastes (minor workers, medias, major workers) and in males. Nevertheless, C. fellah ants use the same overall locomotion strategy, with males and major workers reaching considerably lower walking speeds than minors and medias. Body size thus mainly affects walking speed. Minor workers reach the highest relative velocities by high relative stride lengths in combination with large vertical and lateral centre of mass oscillations and clearly higher stride frequencies of up to 25 Hz. Locomotion of males was characterised by clearly lower walking speeds, wider footprint positions, significant phase shifts and a notable dragging of the shorter hind legs. However, general walking parameters of males differed less from those of the female workers than expected as a result of division of labour in the colony., Competing Interests: Competing interests The authors declare no competing or financial interests., (© 2022. Published by The Company of Biologists Ltd.)

While insect locomotion has been intensively studied, there are comparably few studies investigating octopedal walking behaviour, and very little is known about pseudoscorpions in particular. Therefore, we performed an extensive locomotion analysis during forward, backward and upside-down walking in the cosmopolitan pseudoscorpion Chelifer cancroides. During forward locomotion, we observed C. cancroides to freeze locomotion frequently for short time periods. These microstops were barely visible to the naked eye with a duration of 100-200 ms. Our locomotion analysis revealed that C. cancroides performs a statically stable and highly coordinated alternating tetrapod gait during forward and backward walking, with almost complete inversion of the tetrapod schemes, but no rigidly fixed leg coordination during upside-down walks with low walking speeds up to 4 body lengths per second. Highest speeds (up to 17 body lengths per second), mainly achieved by consistent leg coordination and strong phase shifts, were observed during backward locomotion (escape behaviour), whereas forward walking was characterised by lower speeds and phase shifts of ∼10% between two loosely coupled leg groups within one tetrapod. That is, during the movement of one tetrapod group, the last and the third leg are almost synchronous in their swing phases, as are the second and the first leg. A special role of the second leg pair was demonstrated, probably mainly for stability reasons and related to the large pedipalps., Competing Interests: Competing interests The authors declare no competing or financial interests., (© 2022. Published by The Company of Biologists Ltd.)

Desert ants show a large range of adaptations to their habitats. They can reach extremely high running speeds, for example, to shorten heat stress during foraging trips. It has recently been examined how fast walking speeds are achieved in different desert ant species. It is intriguing in this context that some species exhibit distinct intraspecific size differences. We therefore performed a complete locomotion analysis over the entire size spectrum of the species Cataglyphis bicolor, and we compared this intraspecific dataset with that of the allometrically similar species Cataglyphis albicans. Emphasis was on the allometry of locomotion: we considered the body size of each animal and analysed the data in terms of relative walking speed. Body size was observed to affect walking parameters, gait patterns and phase relationships in terms of absolute walking speed. Unexpectedly, on a relative scale, all ants tended to show the same overall locomotion strategy at low walking speeds, and significant differences occurred only between C. albicans and C. bicolor at high walking speeds. Our analysis revealed that C. bicolor ants use the same overall strategy across all body sizes, with small ants reaching the highest walking speeds (up to 80 body lengths s-1) by increasing their stride length and incorporating aerial phases. By comparison, C. albicans reached high walking speeds mainly by a high synchrony of leg movement, lower swing phase duration and higher stride frequency ranging up to 40 Hz., Competing Interests: Competing interests The authors declare no competing or financial interests., (© 2021. Published by The Company of Biologists Ltd.)