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Wearing high heels (HH) places the calf muscle-tendon unit (MTU) in a shortened position. As muscles and tendons are highly malleable tissues, chronic use of HH might induce structural and functional changes in the calf MTU. To test this hypothesis, 11 women regularly wearing HH and a control group of 9 women were recruited. Gastrocnemius medialis (GM) fascicle length, pennation angle and physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA), the Achilles' tendon (AT) length, cross-sectional area (CSA) and mechanical properties, and the plantarflexion torque-angle and torque-velocity relationships were assessed in both groups. Shorter GM fascicle lengths were observed in the HH group (49.6±5.7 mm vs 56.0±7.7mm), resulting in greater tendon-to-fascicle length ratios. Also, because of greater AT CSA, AT stiffness was higher in the HH group (136.2±26.5 N mm1 vs 111.3±20.2 N mm1). However, no differences in the GM PCSA to AT CSA ratio, torque-angle and torque-velocity relationships were found. We conclude that long-term use of high-heeled shoes induces shortening of the GM muscle fascicles and increases AT stiffness, reducing the ankle's active range of motion. Functionally, these two phenomena seem to counteract each other since no significant differences in static or dynamic torques were observed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the present study was to examine the biomechanics of the lower limb during stair descent and the effects of increasing demand in two ways: by increasing step-height and by increasing body mass. Ten male subjects walked down a four-step staircase, the height of which could be altered. The step-heights were: standard (17 cm), 50% decreased, 50% increased and 75% increased. At the standard height, subjects also walked down wearing a weighted jacket carrying 20% extra body mass. Lower limb kinematics and kinetics were determined using motion capture and ground reaction forces. Also measured were gastrocnemius medialis (GM) muscle electromyography and GM muscle fascicle length using ultrasonography. GM muscle fascicles actively shortened during the touch-down phase of stair descent in all conditions, while the muscle-tendon complex (MTC), as calculated from the knee and ankle joint kinematics, lengthened. The GM muscle fascicles shortened more when step-height was increased, which corresponded to the increase in ankle joint moment. Increased body mass did not alter the ankle or knee joint moment in the first contact phase of a step down; due to a change in strategy, the trailing leg, instead of the leading leg, supported the extra mass. Hence, the amount of GM muscle fascicle shortening, during the touch-down phase, also did not change with added body mass. Our results suggest that the increase in joint moments is related to the amount of fascicle shortening, which occurs whilst the MTC is lengthening, thereby stretching the elastic tendinous tissues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A number of teleost fishes have photoreceptor mechanisms to detect linearly polarized light. We studied the neuronal mechanism underlying this ability. It was found that a polarized signal could be detected in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) both in the electroretinogram (ERG) and in the compound action potential (CAP) measured in the optic nerve, indicating a strong retinal contribution to the processing of polarized light. The CAP recordings showed a W-shaped sensitivity curve, with a peak at 0°, 90° and 180°, consistent with processes for both vertical and horizontal orientation. By contrast, the ERG recordings reveal a more complex pattern. In addition to the peaks at 0°, 90° and 180°, two additional peaks appeared at 45° and 135°. This result suggests a specialized contribution of the outer retina in the processing of polarized light. The spectral sensitivity of the mechanisms responsible for these intermediate peaks was studied using chromatic adaptation. Here we show that long wavelength-sensitive (LWS) cone mechanism adaptation shifted the intermediate peaks towards 90°, whereas ultraviolet-sensitive (UVS) cone mechanism adaptation shifted the peaks away from 90° towards either 0° or 180°. These results provide further confirmation that the 90° peak is dominated by the LWS cone mechanism and the 0° and 180° peaks are dominated by the UVS cone mechanism. In addition, a pharmacological approach was used to examine the retinal neural mechanisms underlying polarization sensitivity. The effect of blocking negative feedback from horizontal cells to cones on the ERG was studied by making intraocular injections of low doses of cobalt, known to block this feedback pathway. It was found that the intermediate peaks seen in the ERG polarization sensitivity curves were eliminated after application of cobalt, suggesting that these peaks are due to outer retinal inhibition derived from feedback of horizontal cells onto cones. A simple computational model was developed to evaluate these results. The model consists of opponent and non-opponent processing elements for the two polarization detectors. This model provides a first approximation analysis suggesting that opponent processing occurs in the outer retina for polarization vision. Although it seems that polarization vision uses a slightly more complicated coding scheme than colour vision, the results presented in this paper suggest that opponent and non-opponent channels process polarization information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]