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Elevation gradients provide opportunities to explore environmental controls on forest structure and functioning, but plot-based studies have proven highly variable due to limited geographic scope. We used airborne imaging spectroscopy and LiDAR (light detection and ranging) to quantify changes in three-dimensional forest structure and canopy functional traits in a series of 25 ha landscapes distributed along a 3300m elevation gradient from lowland Amazonia to treeline in the Peruvian Andes. Canopy greenness, photosynthetic fractional cover and exposed non-photosynthetic vegetation varied as much across lowland forests (100-200 m) as they did from the lowlands to the Andean treeline (3400 m). Elevation was positively correlated with canopy gap density and understory vegetation cover, and negatively related to canopy height and vertical profile. Increases in gap density were tightly linked to increases in understory plant cover, and larger gaps (20-200m²) produced 25-30 times the response in understory cover than did smaller gaps (< 5m²). Scaling of gap size to gap frequency was, however, relatively constant along the elevation gradient, which when combined with other canopy structural information, indicates equilibrium turnover patterns from the lowlands to treeline. Our results provide a first landscape-scale quantification of forest structure and canopy functional traits with changing elevation, thereby improving our understanding of disturbance, demography and ecosystem processes in the Andes-to-Amazon corridor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With ongoing climate change, there is a pressing need to better understand how much water is stored as ground ice in areas with extensive permafrost occurrence, as well as how the regional water balance may alter in response to the potential generation of meltwater from permafrost degradation. However, field-based data on permafrost in remote and mountainous areas such as the South American Andes are scarce. Most current ground ice estimates are based on broadly generalized assumptions such as volume–area scaling and mean ground ice content estimates of rock glaciers. In addition, ground ice contents in permafrost areas outside of rock glaciers are usually not considered, resulting in a significant uncertainty regarding the volume of ground ice in the Andes and its hydrological role. In Part 1 of this contribution, present an extensive geophysical data set based on electrical resistivity tomography and refraction seismic tomography surveys to detect and quantify ground ice of different landforms and surface types in several study regions in the semi-arid Andes of Chile and Argentina with the aim to contribute to the reduction of this data scarcity. In Part 2 we focus on the development of a strategy for the upscaling of geophysics-based ground ice quantification to an entire catchment to estimate the total ground ice volume (and its approximate water equivalent) in the study areas. In addition to the geophysical data, the upscaling approach is based on a permafrost distribution model and classifications of surface and landform types. In this paper, we introduce our upscaling strategy, and we demonstrate that the estimation of large-scale ground ice volumes can be improved by including (i) non-rock-glacier permafrost occurrences and (ii) field evidence through a large number of geophysical surveys and ground truthing information. The results of our study indicate that (i) conventional ground ice estimates for rock-glacier-dominated catchments without in situ data may significantly overestimate ground ice contents and (ii) substantial volumes of ground ice may also be present in catchments where rock glaciers are lacking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plants absorb nutrients and water through their roots and modulate soil biogeochemical cycles. The mechanisms of water and nutrient uptake by plants depend on climatic and edaphic conditions, as well as the plant root system. Soil solution is the medium in which abiotic and biotic processes exchange nutrients, and nutrient concentrations vary with the abundance of reactive minerals and fluid residence times. High-altitude ecosystems of the tropical Andes are interesting for the study of the association between vegetation, soil hydrology, and mineral nutrient availability at the landscape scale for different reasons. First of all, because of low rock-derived nutrient stocks in intensely weathered volcanic soils, biocycling of essential nutrients by plants is expected to be important for plant nutrient acquisition. Second, the ecosystem is characterized by strong spatial patterns in vegetation type and density at the landscape scale and hence is optimal to study soil-water–vegetation interactions. Third, the area is characterized by high carbon stocks but low rates of organic decomposition that might vary with soil hydrology, soil development, and geochemistry, all interconnected with vegetation. The páramo landscape forms a vegetation mosaic of bunch grasses, cushion-forming plants, and forests. In the nutrient-depleted nonallophanic Andosols, the plant rooting depth varies with drainage and soil moisture conditions. Rooting depths were shallower in seasonally waterlogged soils under cushion plants and deeper in well-drained soils under forest and tussock grasses (>100 cm). Vegetation composition is a relevant indicator of rock-derived nutrient availability in soil solutions. The soil solute chemistry revealed patterns in plant-available nutrients that were not mimicking the distribution of total rock-derived nutrients nor the exchangeable nutrient pool but clearly resulted from strong biocycling of cations and removal of nutrients from the soil by plant uptake or deep leaching. Soils under cushion plants showed solute concentrations of Ca, Mg, and Na of about 3 times higher than forest and tussock grasses. Differences were even stronger for dissolved Si with solute concentrations that were 16 times higher than forest and 6 times higher than tussock grasses. Amongst the macronutrients derived from lithogenic sources, P was a limiting nutrient with very low solute concentrations (<1 µ M) for all three vegetation types. In contrast K showed greater solute concentrations under forest soils with values that were 2 to 3 times higher than under cushion-forming plants or tussock grasses. Our findings have important implications for future management of Andean páramo ecosystems where vegetation type distributions are dynamically changing as a result of warming temperatures and land use change. Such alterations may lead not only to changes in soil hydrology and solute geochemistry but also to complex changes in weathering rates and solute export downstream with effects on nutrient concentrations in Andean rivers and high-mountain lakes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Viscous-flow features in perennially frozen talus/debris called rock glaciers are being systematically inventoried as part of the global climate-related monitoring of mountain permafrost. In order to avoid duplication and confusion, guidelines were developed by the International Permafrost Association to discriminate between the permafrost-related landform "rock glacier" and the glacier-related landform "debris-covered glacier". In two regions covered by detailed field measurements, the corresponding data- and physics-based concepts are tested and shown to be adequate. Key physical aspects which cause the striking morphological and dynamic differences between the two phenomena/landforms concern the following: tight mechanical coupling of the surface material to the frozen rock–ice mixture in the case of rock glaciers, contrasting with essential non-coupling of debris to the glaciers they cover; talus-type advancing fronts of rock glaciers exposing fresh debris material from inside the moving frozen bodies, as opposed to massive surface ice exposed by increasingly rare advancing fronts of debris-covered glaciers; and increasing creep rates and continued advance of rock glaciers as convex landforms with structured surfaces versus predominant slowing down and disintegration of debris-covered glaciers as often concave landforms with primarily chaotic surface structure. Where debris-covered surface ice is or has recently been in contact with thermally controlled subsurface ice in permafrost, complex conditions and interactions can develop morphologies beyond simple either–or-type landform classification. In such cases, the remains of buried surface ice mostly tend to be smaller than the lower size limit of "glaciers" as the term is applied in glacier inventories and to be far thinner than the permafrost in which they are embedded. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An asthenospheric window underneath much of the South American continent increases the heat flow in the southern Patagonian Andes where glacial–interglacial cycles drive the building and melting of the Patagonian Icefields since the latest Miocene. The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) was reached ∼26000 yr BP (years before present). Significant deglaciation onsets between 21 000 and 17 000 yr BP were subject to an acceleration since the Little Ice Age (LIA), which was ∼400 yr BP. Fast uplift rates of up to 41±3 mm yr -1 are measured by global navigation satellite system (GNSS) around the Southern Patagonian Icefield and are currently ascribed to post-LIA lithospheric rebound, but the possible longer-term post-LGM rebound is poorly constrained. These uplift rates, in addition, are 1 order of magnitude higher than those measured on other glaciated orogens (e.g. the European Alps), which raises questions about the role of the asthenospheric window in affecting the vertical surface displacement rates. Here, we perform geodynamic thermo-mechanical numerical modelling to estimate the surface uplift rates induced by post-LIA and post-LGM deglaciation, accounting for temperature-dependent rheologies and different thermal regimes in the asthenosphere. Our modelled maximum post-glacial rebound matches the observed uplift rate budget only when both post-LIA and post-LGM deglaciation are accounted for and only if a standard continental asthenospheric mantle potential temperature is increased by 150–200 °C. The asthenospheric window thus plays a key role in controlling the magnitude of presently observed uplift rates in the southern Patagonian Andes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the main problems in climate reconstruction from documentary sources is the evaluation of the quality of non instrumental meteorological records in absence of instrumental observations to perform a calibration. In these cases it is mandatory to envision different approaches to assess the climatic signal in a reconstruction. This work is aimed to test the consistency of a snow frequency reconstruction in the central Argentinean Andes by studying the synoptic patterns related to the occurrence of precipitation in this area. While the original reconstruction covers the period between 1885 and 1996, the insufficiency of overlapping instrumental data limited the calibration to a short 15-year interval. In this paper we evaluate the performance of the reconstructed series for the entire 45-year period between 1958 and 1996 by analyzing the displacement in the jet stream and the patterns of geopotential height related to anomalies in the reconstructed snow frequency series. Previous works have linked the precipitation in the central Andes to the ENSO through the Pacific South American mode. We also have found this connection between ENSO and the reconstructed precipitation. Finally, it is shown that the ENSO relationship is the cause of a significant link between the precipitation anomalies in the central Argentinean Andes and the ice extent around the Antarctic Peninsula. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mining activities in cold regions are vulnerable to snow avalanches. Unlike operational facilities, which can be constructed in secure locations outside the reach of avalanches, access roads are often susceptible to being cut, leading to mine closures and significant financial losses. In this paper we discuss the application of avalanche runout modelling to predict the operational risk to mining roads, a long-standing problem for mines in high-altitude, snowy regions. We study the 35 km long road located in the "Cajón del rio Blanco" valley in the central Andes, which is operated by the Codelco Andina copper mine. In winter and early spring, this road is threatened by over 100 avalanche paths. If the release and snow cover conditions can be accurately specified, we find that avalanche dynamics modelling is able to represent runout, and safe traffic zones can be identified. We apply a detailed, physics-based snow cover model to calculate snow temperature, density and moisture content in three-dimensional terrain. This information is used to determine the initial and boundary conditions of the avalanche dynamics model. Of particular importance is the assessment of the current snow conditions along the avalanche tracks, which define the mass and thermal energy entrainment rates and therefore the possibility of avalanche growth and long runout distances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This integrated pedo-geoarchaeological study focuses on three abandoned prehispanic terrace agricultural systems near Laramate in the southern Andes of Peru, aiming to unravel the pedological and land-use history of the region. The investigation involved contextualizing the former agricultural management system within its paleoecological framework and assessing the impact of agricultural practices on soil development and quality. The Laramate terrace complex, with its diverse terrace systems and varied geomorphological settings, provided an ideal setting for the investigation. Comparative analyses between non-irrigated agricultural terrace soils and undisturbed reference sequences were conducted, employing a range of methodologies, including surveys, soil analysis, GIS and remote sensing, palaeobotany, and radiocarbon dating. The study identifies three WRB Reference Soil Groups in the Laramate region: Phaeozems , Andosols , and Anthrosols. Unique characteristics of Phaeozems challenge typical descriptions, influenced by factors such as climatic seasonality, vegetation, fauna, lithology, and aeolian inputs. Despite long-term use, terrace soils (Anthrosols) show no severe degradation, maintaining balanced acidity and nutrient availability for successful crop cultivation. Tillage horizons of all terrace soils exhibit elevated organic matter content, highlighting the sustainability of prehispanic agricultural practices through a consistent application of organic manure. Phytolith concentrations indicate extensive agricultural activities, particularly maize cultivation, with varying patterns suggesting changes in cultivation or fertilization practices over time. Starch grain identification aligns with phytolith analyses, reinforcing maize's significance in the region. Notably, the abandonment of the prehispanic cultivation system was not linked to soil exhaustion or terrace instability. The prehispanic history of terraced agriculture in the Laramate region extends over four development phases, reflecting dynamic interactions between environmental, cultural, and agricultural factors. The initial phase, from the Formative Paracas period to the Early Nasca period (800 BCE–200 CE), witnessed the establishment of agricultural terraces with simple terrace architecture, while the Middle Horizon (600–1000 CE) saw systematic areal expansion influenced by the Wari culture. Adaptations to drier conditions included terraced agriculture on volcanic soils. The Late Intermediate Period (1000–1450 CE) witnessed hydrological variability and further terrace expansion to lower altitudes and less agriculturally suitable locations. The final phase, marked by the onset of the Hispanic colonial period in 1532 CE, saw the gradual abandonment of terraced agricultural systems due to demographic shifts and reorganization of production systems. Despite this, the historical trajectory underscores the adaptability and resilience of prehispanic communities in the Laramate region, showcasing innovative terrace agriculture as a means of coping with changing environmental conditions across diverse landscape units. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The chemical composition of PM 10 and non-overlapping PM 2.5 was studied at the summit of Mt. Chacaltaya (5380 m a.s.l., lat. - 16.346950°, long. - 68.128250°) providing a unique long-term record spanning from December 2011 to March 2020. The chemical composition of aerosol at the Chacaltaya Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW) site is representative of the regional background, seasonally affected by biomass burning practices and by nearby anthropogenic emissions from the metropolitan area of La Paz–El Alto. Concentration levels are clearly influenced by seasons with minima occurring during the wet season (December to March) and maxima occurring during the dry and transition seasons (April to November). Ions, total carbon (EC + OC), and saccharide interquartile ranges for concentrations are 558–1785, 384–1120, and 4.3–25.5 ng m -3 for bulk PM 10 and 917–2308, 519–1175, and 3.9–24.1 ng m -3 for PM 2.5 , respectively, with most of the aerosol seemingly present in the PM 2.5 fraction. Such concentrations are overall lower compared to other high-altitude stations around the globe but higher than Amazonian remote sites (except for OC). For PM 10 , there is dominance of insoluble mineral matter (33 %–56 % of the mass), organic matter (7 %–34 %), and secondary inorganic aerosol (15 %–26 %). Chemical composition profiles were identified for different origins: EC, NO 3- , NH 4+ , glucose, and C 2 O 42- for the nearby urban and rural areas; OC, EC, NO 3- , K + , acetate, formate, levoglucosan, and some F - and Br - for biomass burning; MeSO 3- , Na + , Mg 2+ , K + , and Ca 2+ for aged marine emissions from the Pacific Ocean; arabitol, mannitol, and glucose for biogenic emissions; Na + , Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , and K + for soil dust; and SO 42- , F - , and some Cl - for volcanism. Regional biomass burning practices influence the soluble fraction of the aerosol between June and November. The organic fraction is present all year round and has both anthropogenic (biomass burning and other combustion sources) and natural (primary and secondary biogenic emissions) origins, with the OC/EC mass ratio being practically constant all year round (10.5 ± 5.7, IQR 8.1–13.3). Peruvian volcanism has dominated the SO 42- concentration since 2014, though it presents strong temporal variability due to the intermittence of the sources and seasonal changes in the transport patterns. These measurements represent some of the first long-term observations of aerosol chemical composition at a continental high-altitude site in the tropical Southern Hemisphere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Snow modelling is often hampered by the availability of input and calibration data, which can affect the choice of models, their complexity, and transferability. To address the trade-off between model parsimony and transferability, we present the Generalizable Empirical Model of Snow Accumulation and Melt (GEMS), a machine-learning-based model, which requires only daily precipitation, temperature or its daily diurnal cycle, and basic topographic features to simulate snow water equivalent (SWE). The model embeds a support vector regression pretrained on a large dataset of daily observations from a diverse set of the SNOwpack TELemetry Network (SNOTEL) stations in the United States. GEMS does not require any user calibration, except for the option to adjust the temperature threshold for rain–snow partitioning, though the model achieves robust simulation results with the default value. We validated the model with long-term daily observations from numerous independent SNOTEL stations not included in the training and with data from reference stations of the Earth System Model–Snow Model Intercomparison Project. We demonstrate how the model advances large-scale SWE modelling in regions with complex terrain that lack in situ snow mass observations for calibration, such as the Pamir and Andes mountains, by assessing the model's ability to reproduce daily snow cover dynamics. Future model improvements should consider the effects of vegetation, improve simulation accuracy for shallow snow in warm locations at lower elevations, and possibly address wind-induced snow redistribution. Overall, GEMS provides a new approach for snow modelling that can be useful for hydroclimatic research and operational monitoring in regions where in situ snow observations are scarce. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Early growth of atmospheric particles is essential for their survival and ability to participate in cloud formation. Many different atmospheric vapors contribute to the growth, but even the main contributors still remain poorly identified in many environments, such as high-altitude sites. Based on measured organic vapor and sulfuric acid concentrations under ambient conditions, particle growth during new particle formation events was simulated and compared with the measured particle size distribution at the Chacaltaya Global Atmosphere Watch station in Bolivia (5240 m a.s.l.) during April and May 2018, as a part of the SALTENA (Southern Hemisphere high-ALTitude Experiment on particle Nucleation and growth) campaign. Despite the challenging topography and ambient conditions around the station, the simple particle growth model used in the study was able to show that the detected vapors were sufficient to explain the observed particle growth, although some discrepancies were found between modeled and measured particle growth rates. This study, one of the first of such studies conducted on high altitude, gives insight on the key factors affecting the particle growth on the site and helps to improve the understanding of important factors on high-altitude sites and the atmosphere in general. Low-volatility organic compounds originating from multiple surrounding sources such as the Amazonia and La Paz metropolitan area were found to be the main contributor to the particle growth, covering on average 65 % of the simulated particle mass in particles with a diameter of 30 nm. In addition, sulfuric acid made a major contribution to the particle growth, covering at maximum 37 % of the simulated particle mass in 30 nm particles during periods when volcanic activity was detected on the area, compared to around 1 % contribution on days without volcanic activity. This suggests that volcanic emissions can greatly enhance the particle growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plants absorb nutrients and water through their roots, and modulate soil biogeochemical cycles. The mechanisms of water and nutrient uptake by plants depend on climatic and edaphic conditions, as well as the plant root system. Soil solution is the medium in which abiotic and biotic processes exchange nutrients, and nutrient concentrations vary with the abundance of reactive minerals and fluid residence times. High-altitude ecosystems of the tropical Andes are particularly interesting to study the association between vegetation patterns, soil hydrology and soil nutrient availability. The páramo landscape forms a vegetation mosaic of bunch-grasses, cushion-forming plants and forests. In the nutrient-depleted nonallophanic Andosols, the plant rooting depth varies with drainage and soil moisture conditions. Vegetation composition is a relevant indicator of rock-derived nutrient availability in soil solutions. The soil solute chemistry revealed patterns in plant available nutrients that were not mimicking the distribution of total rock-derived nutrients nor the exchangeable nutrient pool, but clearly resulted from strong biocycling of cations and removal of nutrients from the soil by plant uptake or deep leaching. Our findings have important implications for future management of Andean páramo ecosystems where vegetation type distributions are dynamically changing as a result of warming temperatures and anthropogenic disturbances. Such alterations may not only lead to changes in soil hydrology and solute geochemistry but also to complex changes in weathering rates and solute export downstream with effects on nutrient availability in Andean rivers and high-mountain lakes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work quantifies the uncertainty of accumulation-season peak snow water storage in the portions of the midlatitude American Cordillera where snow is a dominant driver of hydrology. This is accomplished through intercomparison of commonly used global and regional products over the Western United States (WUS) and Andes domains, which have similar hydrometeorology but are disparate with respect to the amount of available in situ information. The recently developed WUS Snow Reanalysis (WUS-SR) and Andes Snow Reanalysis (Andes-SR) datasets, which have been extensively verified against in situ measurements, are used as baseline reference datasets in the intercomparison. Relative to WUS-SR climatological peak snow water equivalent (SWE) storage (269 km 3), high- and moderate-resolution products (i.e., those with resolutions less than ∼10 km) are in much better agreement (284±14 km 3 ; overestimated by 6 %) compared to low-resolution products (127±54 km 3 ; underestimated by 53 %). In comparison to the Andes-SR peak snow storage (29 km 3), all other products show large uncertainty and bias (19±16 km 3 ; underestimated by 34 %). Examination of spatial patterns related to orographic effects showed that only the high- to moderate-resolution Snow Data Assimilation System (SNODAS) and University of Arizona (UA) products show comparable estimates of windward–leeward SWE patterns over a subdomain (Sierra Nevada) of the WUS. Coarser products distribute too much snow on the leeward side in both the Sierra Nevada and Andes, missing orographic and rain shadow patterns that have important hydrological implications. The uncertainty of peak seasonal snow storage is primarily explained by precipitation uncertainty in both the WUS (R2=0.55) and Andes (R2=0.84). Despite using similar forcing inputs, snow storage diverges significantly within the ECMWF Reanalysis v5 (ERA5) (i.e., ERA5 vs. ERA5-Land) products and the Global Land Data Assimilation System (GLDAS) (modeled with Noah, Variable Infiltration Capacity (VIC), and Catchment model) products due to resolution-induced elevation differences and/or differing model process representation related to rain–snow partitioning and accumulation-season snowmelt generation. The availability and use of in situ precipitation and snow measurements (i.e., in WUS) in some products adds value by reducing snow storage uncertainty; however, where such data are limited, i.e., in the Andes, significant biases and uncertainty exist. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Overestimation of precipitation over steep mountains is always a common bias of atmospheric general circulation models (AGCMs). One basic reason is the imperfection of parameterization schemes. Sub-grid topography has a non-negligible role in the dynamics of the actual atmosphere, and therefore the sub-grid topographic parameterization schemes have been the focus of model development. This study proposes a sub-grid parameterization scheme for topographic vertical motion in CAM5-SE (Community Atmospheric Model version 5 with spectral element dynamical core) to revise the original vertical velocity by adding the topographic vertical motion, resulting in a significant improvement in simulations in precipitation over steep mountains. The results show a better improvement in precipitation simulation in steep mountains, such as the steep edge of the Tibetan Plateau and the Andes. The positive deviations of the precipitation on the mountain tops and the negative deviations in the windward slope are revised. The improved scheme of topographic vertical motion reduces the model biases of summer mean precipitation simulations by up to 48 % (6.23 mm d -1) on the mountain tops. The improvement in convective precipitation (4.83 mm d -1) contributes the most to the improvement in the total precipitation simulation. In addition, we extend the dynamic lifting effect of topography from the lowest layer (Single experiment) to multiple layers, approaching the bottom model layers (Multi experiment). Moreover, the water vapor transport in low-altitude regions in front of the windward slope is also considerably improved, leading to simulations of much more realistic circulation patterns in the multi-layer scheme. Since the sub-grid parameterization scheme addresses the more detailed problem caused by topography, the water vapor is transported further to the northwest in the multi-layer scheme. The topographic vertical motion schemes in both the Single and Multi experiments can improve the model performance in simulating precipitation in all regions with complex terrain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Determining the sources of water provisioning streams, soils, and vegetation can provide important insights into the water that sustains critical ecosystem functions now and how those functions may be expected to respond given projected changes in the global hydrologic cycle. We developed multi-year time series of water isotope ratios (δ18 O and δ2 H) based on twice-monthly collections of precipitation, lysimeter, and tree branch xylem waters from a seasonally dry tropical montane cloud forest in the southeastern Andes mountains of Peru. We then used this information to determine indices of the seasonal origins, the young water fractions (Fyw), and the new water fractions (Fnew) of soil, stream, and tree water. There was no evidence for intra-annual variation in the seasonal origins of stream water and lysimeter water from 1 m depth, both of which were predominantly comprised of wet-season precipitation even during the dry seasons. However, branch xylem waters demonstrated an intra-annual shift in seasonal origin: xylem waters were comprised of wet-season precipitation during the wet season and dry-season precipitation during the dry season. The young water fractions of lysimeter (< 15 %) and stream (5 %) waters were lower than the young water fraction (37 %) in branch xylem waters. The new water fraction (an indicator of water ≤ 2 weeks old in this study) was estimated to be 12 % for branch xylem waters, while there was no significant evidence for new water in stream or lysimeter waters from 1 m depth. Our results indicate that the source of water for trees in this system varied seasonally, such that recent precipitation may be more immediately taken up by shallow tree roots. In comparison, the source of water for soils and streams did not vary seasonally, such that precipitation may mix and reside in soils and take longer to transit into the stream. Our insights into the seasonal origins and ages of water in soils, streams, and vegetation in this humid tropical montane cloud forest add to understanding of the mechanisms that govern the partitioning of water moving through different ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The number of studies of Little Ice Age (LIA) glacier fluctuations in southern South America has increased in recent years but is largely biased towards sites in the south Patagonian Andes. In this paper we present a detailed record of length and areal fluctuations of Glaciar Esperanza Norte (GEN) in the north Patagonian Andes of Argentina during the past four centuries. The GEN record was reconstructed through the dendro-geomorphological dating of moraines and the analysis of satellite imagery, aerial photographs and documentary material complemented with extensive field surveys. The maximum LIA extent at GEN was associated with an outer moraine dated to the mid 17th century. At least 19 subsequent readvances or standstills evidenced by morainic ridges were identified inside the most extensive LIA moraine. The dating and spacing of these moraines and the additional information available indicate that the ice front retreated much more rapidly during the 20th century than during earlier centuries. Comparison with the record of LIA fluctuations of Glaciar Fr'ias, an ice mass of similar characteristics located 110 km to the north of GEN, shows a similar pattern of recession over the past 400 yr. Both glacier records have the peak LIA event occurring roughly during the same interval (early-mid 17th century) and show a minor readvance during the 1970s, but there are still a few discrepancies in the dating of some inner moraines. These differences may be due to local, specific factors or associated with the inherent uncertainties in the dating of the moraines. The chronologies of GEN and Fr'ias are among the most detailed currently available in Patagonia, but a larger number of study sites is needed to develop robust, regionally representative glacier chronologies. Detailed glaciological, geomorphological and meteorological data are also needed to understand the glacier-climate relationships in this region and develop reliable paleoclimatic reconstructions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change is expected to have a large impact on water resources worldwide. A major problem in assessing the potential impact of a changing climate on these resources is the difference in spatial scale between available climate change projections and water resources management. Regional climate models (RCMs) are often used for the spatial disaggregation of the outputs of global circulation models. However, RCMs are time-intensive to run and typically only a small number of model runs is available for a certain region of interest. This paper investigates the value of the improved representation of local climate processes by a regional climate model for water resources management in the tropical Andes of Ecuador. This region has a complex hydrology and its water resources are under pressure. Compared to the IPCC AR4 model ensemble, the regional climate model PRECIS does indeed capture local gradients better than global models, but locally the model is prone to large discrepancies between observed and modelled precipitation. It is concluded that a further increase in resolution is necessary to represent local gradients properly. Furthermore, to assess the uncertainty in downscaling, an ensemble of regional climate models should be implemented. Finally, translating the climate variables to streamflow using a hydrological model constitutes a smaller but not negligible source of uncertainty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper deals with natural disturbances and their impact on vascular plant enrichment at two climatically contrasting Andean ranges, i.e. the perhumid Cordillera Real in southern Ecuador and the arid Cordillera de Atacama in northern Chile. In the first case, main triggers for an additional input of pioneer species during succession stages initiated by perturbations are landslides, mudflows, and, to a lesser extent, cohort mortality, floods, and wildlife damages. Droughts and wind are stressors, which reduce plant growth but hardly plant diversity, in contrast to enhanced UV radiation with its mutagen effect. Though stress effects are similar in the Atacama, disturbance regimes differ considerably in this dry mountain environment. Here, most perturbations are of small dimension such as nitrogen inputs by feces of Lamoids and burrow activities of tuco-tuco mice, both of them fostering nitrophilous plant communities. Flooding, gelifluction, and other denudation processes such as sheet wash occur too, however, do not charge species enrichment in the dry Andes. Although the perhumid study site represents one of the world's plant diversity "hotspots" and, by contrast, the arid one a comparatively "coldspot", pioneer species during successive stages after natural disturbances contribute in a similar percentage to the total plant inventories (appr. 10% of the species numbers). Relatively seen, natural disturbances are most important for species enrichment in the Atacama (200-500 species per 10 000 km²), while most other ecological factors delimit plant survival. Instead, plant life at the Ecuadorian study area benefits from many climatic and edaphic site conditions, and consequently, disturbances are considered only one of many driving forces for its hotspot status (>5000 species per 10 000 km²). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

South American subtropics east of the Andes exhibit a region of intense climatological frontogenesis in equivalent potential temperature (EPT) in the December to March season, mostly produced by deformation of the wind field. The goal of this paper is to investigate the large scale features associated with intense and weak frontogenesis by deformation (FGD) in EPT in the region where it attains its climatological maximum. This can be approximately delimited by 32-42° S and 66-69°W, which is small enough as to contain only one synoptic perturbation at a time. The spatial average of the positive values of frontogenesis at 850 hPa over the whole region (DFG+) is used to represent the strength of the perturbation. ECMWF ERA-40 reanalysis data set is used to calculate DFG+ at six hour intervals for 21 seasons (1981-2002). Compositing analysis is carried out for strong (above the 0.75 quantile) and weak (below the 0.25 quantile) events. For strong events the geopotential field at 850 hPa exhibits the North Argentinean Low (NAL), a transient trough and the Low Pressure Tongue East of the Andes (LPT). Upon comparison with the composite field of FGD it can be observed that FGD exhibits a strong maximum over the Argentinean Col (AC) which separates the NAL and the trough. These features are absent in the weak frontogenesis composite, which exhibits a stronger South Pacific Subtropical High close to the continent. At 250 hPa the strong FGD composite exhibits a trough over the Andes with a wind speed maximum to its east. Both of these features are associated with the deepening of the NAL in the literature. These are not present in the weak FGD composites. Strong events show an intense quasi meridional corridor of water vapor transport from the Amazon to the subtropics that encounters westerly flow in the neighborhood of the AC. This is absent in weak events. A preliminary analysis of precipitation is carried out using the GPCP daily data set. An intense precipitation nucleus appears slightly northeast of the AC, with maximum intensity in the day that follows the strong events. Weak events exhibit a drying of the subtropics instead, between one and three days after the events. Higher precipitation over the oceanic South Atlantic Convergence Zone can be also observed. Analogous composites were constructed for the presence and absence of both the AC and the LPT, showing similar characteristics to the strong and weak FGD event composites respectively, but with lower intensities. This shows that by selecting strong FGD events, intense NAL and LPT events are also singled out. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent airborne pollen records data from Northern Patagonia (San Carlos de Bariloche, Argentina, Lat. 41.1435° S, Long. 71.375°W, 800m elevation) suggest that pollen transport takes place from the west to the east slope of the Andes. However, the atmospheric characteristics responsible of this transport have not yet been studied. The aim of this paper is to assess potential source areas and to describe the involved atmospheric mechanisms of the trans- Andean pollen transport. Methodology relies on the analysis of backward trajectories of air masses calculated with the HYSPLIT 4.9 regional model for particular days where airborne pollen of Weinmannia trichosperma Cav. was detected east of the Andes. This pollen type was selected because it is found regularly at localities in eastern Patagonia beyond its present-day distribution. Weinmannia's substantial presence during early Holocene times would also benefit from better knowledge of its transport mechanisms. Correspondence between atmospheric trajectories and the position of sources was checked using GIS maps. Mode T, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) with Varimax rotation was used to identify the main spatial structure of geopotential height anomalies producing the calculated trajectories. Eighty-eight cases showed that the calculated directions of trajectories trended from the Northwest to Southwest passing over the Chilean region of W. trichosperma distribution. PCs results showed two patterns of negative anomalies over southern Patagonia. The prevailing circulation pattern which drives airborne transport is the presence of a trough located south of 37 to 40° S with its axis over western Patagonia. The synoptic situations for two cases highly correlated with principal component scores were described. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper documents the main features of the weather, climate and climate variability over Andes cordillera in South America on the basis of instrumental observations. We first provide a basic physical understanding of the mean annual cycle of the atmospheric circulation and precipitation and over the Andes and adjacent lowlands. In particular, the diversity of precipitation, temperature and wind patterns is interpreted in terms of the long meridional extent of the Andes and the disruption of the large-scale circulation by this formidable topographic barrier. We also document the impact of the El Niño Southern Oscillation phenomenon on the temperature and precipitation regimes along the Andes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Andes as mountain regions worldwide, provide fundamental resources, not only for the local population. Due to the topographic characteristics, the potential for natural hazards is higher than elsewhere. In these areas, assessments of climate change impacts and the development of adequate adaptation strategies therefore become particular important. The data basis, however, is often scarce. Moreover, perceptions of changes and needs are often divergent between national and local levels, which make the implementation of adaptation measures a challenge. Taking the Peruvian Andes as an example, this paper aims at initiating a discussion about scientific baseline and integrative concepts needed to deal with the adverse effects of climate change in mountain regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research around water security in the Peruvian Andes rarely includes a local perspective or engages in a participatory approach with local communities within the research process. Here we share four key lessons from an interdisciplinary project that gathered community perspectives on water quality issues in the upper Rio Santa basin. Mixed-methods data was collected via a photo elicitation app with a survey (Nuestro Rio), and a field work campaign. Our main learnings were i) the importance of in-person engagement; ii) the accessibility of technology for data collection; iii) the need for co-produced knowledge and solutions; and iv) the complexity of water quality as an environmental concept. Our research highlights the importance of effective participant engagement methods to support socio-environmental integration to support sustainable decision-making and water resource management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sublimation is the main ablation component of snow in the upper areas of the semiarid Andes (∼ 26 to ∼ 32 ∘ S and ∼ 69 to ∼ 71 ∘ W). This region has elevations up to 6000 m , is characterized by scarce precipitation, high solar radiation receipt, and low air humidity, and has been affected by a severe drought since 2010. In this study, we suggest that most of the snowmelt runoff originates from specific areas with topographic and meteorological features that allow large snow accumulation and limited mass removal. To test this hypothesis, we quantify the spatial distribution of snowmelt runoff and sublimation in a catchment of the semiarid Andes using a process-based snow model that is forced with field data. Model simulations over a 2-year period reproduce point-scale records of snow depth (SD) and snow water equivalent (SWE) and are also in good agreement with an independent SWE reconstruction product as well as satellite snow cover area and indices of winter snow absence and summer snow persistence. We estimate that 50 % of snowmelt runoff is produced by 21 %–29 % of the catchment area, which we define as "snowmelt hotspots". Snowmelt hotspots are located at mid-to-lower elevations of the catchment on wind-sheltered, low-angle slopes. Our findings show that sublimation is not only the main ablation component: it also plays an important role shaping the spatial variability in total annual snowmelt. Snowmelt hotspots might be connected with other hydrological features of arid and semiarid mountain regions, such as areas of groundwater recharge, rock glaciers, and mountain peatlands. We recommend more detailed snow and hydrological monitoring of these sites, especially in the current and projected scenarios of scarce precipitation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of topography in determining water transit times and pathways through catchments is unclear, especially in mountainous environments – yet these environments play central roles in global water, sediment, and biogeochemical fluxes. Since the vast majority of intensively monitored catchments are at northern latitudes, the interplay between water transit, topography, and other landscape and climatic characteristics is particularly underexplored in tropical environments. To address this gap, here we present the results of a multiyear hydrologic sampling campaign (twice-monthly and storm sampling) to quantify water transit in seven small catchments (<1.3 km 2 area) across the transition from the Andes mountains to the Amazon floodplain in southern Peru. We use the stable isotope composition of water (δ18 O) to calculate the fraction of streamflow comprised of recent precipitation ("young water fraction") for each of the seven small catchments. Flow-weighted young water fractions (Fyw) are 5 %–26 % in the high-elevation mountains, 22 %–52 % in the mid-elevation mountains, and 7 % in the foreland floodplain. Across these catchments, topography does not exert a clear control on water transit; instead, stream Fyw is apparently controlled by a combination of hydroclimate (precipitation regime) and bedrock permeability. Mid-elevation sites are posited to have the highest Fyw due to more frequent and intense rainfall; less permeable bedrock and poorly developed soils may also facilitate high Fyw at these sites. Lowland soils have low Fyw due to very low flow path gradients despite low permeability. The data presented here highlight the complexity of factors that determine water transit in tropical mountainous catchments, particularly highlighting the role of intense orographic precipitation at mountain fronts in driving rapid conveyance of water through catchments. These results have implications for the response of Earth's montane "water towers" to climate change and for water–rock reactions that control global biogeochemical cycles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hailstorms, while fascinating from a meteorological perspective, pose significant risks to communities, agriculture, and infrastructure. In regions such as the Central Andes of Peru, the characteristics and frequency of these extreme weather events remain largely uncharted. This study fills this gap by investigating the historical frequency and vertical structure of hailstorms in this region. We analyzed historical hailstorm records dating back to 1958 alongside four years of observations (2017–2021) from Parsivel2 disdrometer and a cloud profiler radar MIRA35c. Our findings indicate a trend of decreasing hail frequency (-0.5 events/decade). However, the p-value of 0.07 suggests the need for further investigation, particularly in relation to environmental changes and reporting methods. The results show that hailstorms predominantly occur during the austral summer months, with peak frequency in December, and are most common during the afternoon and early evening hours. The analysis of radar variables such as reflectivity, radial velocity, spectral width, and linear depolarization ratio (LDR) reveals distinct vertical profiles for hail events. Two case studies highlight the diversity in the radar measurements of hailstorms, underscoring the complexity of accurate hail detection. This study suggests the necessity for refining the Parsivel2 algorithm and further understanding its classification of hydrometeors. Additionally, the limitations of conventional radar variables for hail detection are discussed, recommending the use of LDR and Doppler spectrum analysis for future research. Our findings lay the groundwork for the development of more efficient hail detection algorithms and improved understanding of hailstorms in the Central Andes of Peru. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Active rock glaciers are viscous flow features embodying ice-rich permafrost and other ice masses. They contain significant amounts of ground ice and serve as potential freshwater reservoirs as mountain glaciers melt in response to climate warming. However, current knowledge about ice content in rock glaciers has been acquired mainly from in situ investigations in limited study areas, which hinders a comprehensive understanding of ice storage in rock glaciers situated in remote mountains over local to regional scales. This study proposes a novel approach for assessing the hydrological value of rock glaciers in a more quantitative way and presents exploratory results focusing on a small region. We develop an empirical rheological model to infer ice content of rock glaciers using readily available input data, including rock glacier planar shape, surface slope angle, active layer thickness, and surface velocity. The model is calibrated and validated using observational data from the Chilean Andes and the Swiss Alps. We apply the model to five rock glaciers in the Khumbu and Lhotse valleys, northeastern Nepal. The velocity constraints applied to the model are derived from interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) measurements. The volume of rock glacier is estimated based on an existing scaling approach. The inferred volumetric ice fraction in the Khumbu and Lhotse valleys ranges from 70 ± 8 % to 74 ± 8 %, and the water volume equivalents lie between 1.4±0.2 and 5.9±0.6×106 m 3 for the coherently moving parts of individual rock glaciers. Due to the accessibility of the model inputs, our approach is applicable to permafrost regions where observational data are lacking, which is valuable for estimating the water storage potential of rock glaciers in remote areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parameterizing incident solar radiation over complex topography regions in Earth system models (ESMs) remains a challenging task. In ESMs, downward solar radiative fluxes at the surface are typically computed using plane-parallel radiative transfer schemes, which do not explicitly account for the effects of a three-dimensional topography, such as shading and reflections. To improve the representation of these processes, we introduce and test a parameterization of radiation–topography interactions tailored to the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL) ESM land model. The approach presented here builds on an existing correction scheme for direct, diffuse, and reflected solar irradiance terms over three-dimensional terrain. Here we combine this correction with a novel hierarchical multivariate clustering algorithm that explicitly describes the spatially varying downward irradiance over mountainous terrain. Based on a high-resolution digital elevation model, this combined method first defines a set of sub-grid land units ("tiles") by clustering together sites characterized by similar terrain–radiation interactions (e.g., areas with similar slope orientation, terrain, and sky view factors). Then, based on terrain parameters characteristic for each tile, correction terms are computed to account for the effects of local 3D topography on shortwave radiation over each land unit. We develop and test this procedure based on a set of Monte Carlo ray-tracing simulations approximating the true radiative transfer process over three-dimensional topography. Domains located in three distinct geographic regions (Alps, Andes, and Himalaya) are included in this study to allow for independent testing of the methodology over surfaces with differing topographic features. We find that accounting for the sub-grid spatial variability of solar irradiance originating from interactions with complex topography is important as these effects led to significant local differences with respect to the plane-parallel case, as well as with respect to grid-cell-scale average topographic corrections. We further quantify the importance of the topographic correction for a varying number of terrain clusters and for different radiation terms (direct, diffuse, and reflected radiative fluxes) in order to inform the application of this methodology in different ESMs with varying sub-grid tile structure. We find that even a limited number of sub-grid units such as 10 can lead to recovering more than 60% of the spatial variability of solar irradiance over a mountainous area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Air ions are the key components for a series of atmospheric physicochemical interactions, such as ion-catalyzed reactions, ion-molecule reactions, and ion-induced new particle formation (NPF). They also control atmospheric electrical properties with effects on global climate. We performed molecular-level measurements of cluster ions at the high-altitude research station Chacaltaya (CHC; 5240 m a.s.l.), located in the Bolivian Andes, from January to May 2018 using an atmospheric-pressure-interface time-of-flight mass spectrometer. The negative ions mainly consisted of (H 2 SO 4) 0–3⚫ HSO 4- , (HNO 3) 0–2⚫ NO 3- , SO 5- , (NH 3) 1–6⚫ (H 2 SO 4) 3–7⚫ HSO 4- , malonic-acid-derived, and CHO / CHON ⚫ (HSO 4- / NO 3-) cluster ions. Their temporal variability exhibited distinct diurnal and seasonal patterns due to the changes in the corresponding neutral species' molecular properties (such as electron affinity and proton affinity) and concentrations resulting from the air masses arriving at CHC from different source regions. The positive ions were mainly composed of protonated amines and organic cluster ions but exhibited no clear diurnal variation. H 2 SO 4 –NH 3 cluster ions likely contributed to the NPF process, particularly during the wet-to-dry transition period and the dry season, when CHC was more impacted by air masses originating from source regions with elevated SO 2 emissions. Our study provides new insights into the chemical composition of atmospheric cluster ions and their role in new particle formation in the high-altitude mountain environment of the Bolivian Andes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vegetation plays a key role in the hydrological and biogeochemical cycles. It can influence soil water fluxes and transport, which are critical for chemical weathering and soil development. In this study, we investigated soil water balance and solute fluxes in two soil profiles with different vegetation types (cushion-forming plants vs. tussock grasses) in the high Ecuadorian Andes by measuring soil water content, flux, and solute concentrations and by modeling soil hydrology. We also analyzed the role of soil water balance in soil chemical weathering. The influence of vegetation on soil water balance and solute fluxes is restricted to the A horizon. Evapotranspiration is 1.7 times higher and deep drainage 3 times lower under cushion-forming plants than under tussock grass. Likewise, cushions transmit about 2-fold less water from the A to lower horizons. This is attributed to the higher soil water retention and saturated hydraulic conductivity associated with a shallower and coarser root system. Under cushion-forming plants, dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and metals (Al, Fe) are mobilized in the A horizon. Solute fluxes that can be related to plant nutrient uptake (Mg, Ca, K) decline with depth, as expected from biocycling of plant nutrients. Dissolved silica and bicarbonate are minimally influenced by vegetation and represent the largest contributions of solute fluxes. Soil chemical weathering is higher and constant with depth below tussock grasses but lower and declining with depth under cushion-forming plants. This difference in soil weathering is attributed mainly to the water fluxes. Our findings reveal that vegetation can modify soil properties in the uppermost horizon, altering the water balance, solute fluxes, and chemical weathering throughout the soil profile. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given the short span of instrumental precipitation records in the South American Altiplano, longer-term hydroclimatic records are needed to understand the nature of climate variability and to improve the predictability of precipitation, a key natural resource for the socioeconomic development in the Altiplano and adjacent arid lowlands. In this region grows Polylepis tarapacana, a long-lived tree species that is very sensitive to hydroclimatic changes and has been widely used for tree-ring studies in the central and southern Altiplano. However, in the northern sector of the Peruvian and Chilean Altiplano (16–19 ∘ S) still exists a gap of high-resolution hydroclimatic data based on tree-ring records. Our study provides an overview of the temporal evolution of the late-spring–mid-summer precipitation for the period 1625–2013 CE at the northern South American Altiplano, allowing for the identification of wet or dry periods based on a regional reconstruction from three P. tarapacana chronologies. An increase in the occurrence of extreme dry events, together with a decreasing trend in the reconstructed precipitation, has been recorded since the 1970s in the northern Altiplano within the context of the last ∼4 centuries. The average precipitation over the last 17 years stands out as the driest in our 389-year reconstruction. We reveal a temporal and spatial synchrony across the Altiplano region of dry conditions since the mid-1970s. Independent tree-ring-based hydroclimate reconstructions and several paleoclimatic records based on other proxies available for the tropical Andes record this synchrony. The influence of El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) on the northern Altiplano precipitation was detected by our rainfall reconstruction that showed past drier conditions in our study region associated with ENSO warm events. The spectral properties of the rainfall reconstruction showed strong imprints of ENSO variability at decadal, sub-decadal, and inter-annual timescales, in particular from the Pacific NIÑO 3 sector. Overall, the recent reduction in precipitation in comparison with previous centuries, the increase in extreme dry events and the coupling between precipitation and ENSO variability reported by this work is essential information in the context of the growing demand for water resources in the Altiplano. This study will contribute to a better understanding of the vulnerability and resilience of the region to the projected evapotranspiration increase for the 21st century associated with global warming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dimethyl sulfide (DMS) is the primary natural contributor to the atmospheric sulfur burden. Observations concerning the fate of DMS oxidation products after long-range transport in the remote free troposphere are, however, sparse. Here we present quantitative chemical ionization mass spectrometric measurements of DMS and its oxidation products sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4), methanesulfonic acid (MSA), dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), dimethylsulfone (DMSO 2), methanesulfinic acid (MSIA), methyl thioformate (MTF), methanesulfenic acid (MSEA, CH 3 SOH), and a compound of the likely structure CH 3 S(O) 2 OOH in the gas phase, as well as measurements of the sulfate and methanesulfonate aerosol mass fractions. The measurements were performed at the Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW) station Chacaltaya in the Bolivian Andes located at 5240 m above sea level (a.s.l.). DMS and DMS oxidation products are brought to the Andean high-altitude station by Pacific air masses during the dry season after convective lifting over the remote Pacific ocean to 6000–8000 m a.s.l. and subsequent long-range transport in the free troposphere (FT). Most of the DMS reaching the station is already converted to the rather unreactive sulfur reservoirs DMSO2 in the gas phase and methanesulfonate (MS -) in the particle phase, which carried nearly equal amounts of sulfur to the station. The particulate sulfate at Chacaltaya is however dominated by regional volcanic emissions during the time of the measurement and not significantly affected by the marine air masses. In one of the FT events, even some DMS was observed next to reactive intermediates such as methyl thioformate, dimethylsulfoxide, and methanesulfinic acid. Also for this event, back trajectory calculations show that the air masses came from above the ocean (distance >330 km) with no local surface contacts. This study demonstrates the potential impact of marine DMS emissions on the availability of sulfur-containing vapors in the remote free troposphere far away from the ocean. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Air pollution in the central zone of Chile is not only a public health concern but also threatens water resources and climate, in connection with the transport and deposition of black carbon (BC) from urban centers onto the glaciers of the Andes. Chemistry-transport simulations reveal a seasonal dichotomy in the flux and latitudinal pattern of BC deposition on glaciers of the central Chilean Andes. The average deposition flux of BC on glaciers between 30 and 37 ∘ S is 4 times larger in winter, affecting mostly low-elevation glaciers, whereas the smaller summertime flux affects glaciers evenly, irrespective of their elevation. The contribution of emissions from the city of Santiago is dominant in summertime with more than 50 % along the Andes but minor in wintertime with less than 20 % even close to the capital city. Transport at larger scales and more local sources likely account for the remaining flux. The superimposition of synoptic-scale circulation and local mountain-valley circulation along the Andes drives the differences between summertime and wintertime deposition fluxes and generates a greater meteorological export potential during summer months. Future emissions and climate projections suggest that under the RCP8.5 scenario the gap between summertime and wintertime BC export and deposition flux could decrease, thereby pointing to summertime emission control gaining relevance. The chemistry-transport modeling approach for BC deposition on the Andes sheds light on the importance of the often disregarded summertime emissions on the radiative balance of its glaciers, particularly in the vicinity of Santiago. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High-silica explosive eruptions are one of the most dangerous natural phenomena, yet it is unclear which processes are involved in this infrequent kind of event. We present the first systematic characterization of near-field seismicity associated with a large high-silica eruption analyzing data recorded before, during and after the 4 June 2011 rhyolitic eruption of Puyehue–Cordón Caulle Volcanic Complex (PCCVC). Results of a first-level data processing, developed by the Southern Andean Volcano Observatory (OVDAS) to monitor unrest and the evolution of the eruption, are complemented here with the relocation of hypocenters into a local 1D velocity model, the time series of the b value and the computation of the focal mechanism. This information allows us to define several phases before and after the onset of the eruption, describing details of the space–time evolution of seismicity, defining and characterizing the seismic sources, and identifying the structural control of the magmatic intrusion and stress variations during the eruption. Our results illuminate several underlying processes, with emphasis on the possible role that basement structures had on the storage, transport and evacuation of magma. Integrating our results with previous findings based on satellite geodesy and petrology of erupted materials, we discuss general conceptual models regarding destabilization of structurally controlled acidic magmatic systems, the pass from unrest to eruption, and changes in eruptive style and waning phases of eruptions, with broader implications for monitoring and forecast of violent silicic eruptions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Andes are an emblematic active Cordilleran orogen. Mountain building in the Central Andes (∼20 ∘ S) started by the Late Cretaceous to early Cenozoic along the subduction margin and propagated eastward. In general, the structures sustaining the uplift of the western flank of the Andes are dismissed, and their contribution to mountain building remains poorly constrained. Here, we focus on two sites along the Western Andes at ∼20 –22 ∘ S in the Atacama desert, where structures are well exposed. We combine mapping from high-resolution satellite images with field observations and numerical trishear forward modeling to provide quantitative constraints on the kinematic evolution of the investigated field sites. When upscaling our local field interpretations to the regional scale, we identify two main structures: (1) the Andean Basement Thrust, a west-vergent thrust system placing Andean Paleozoic basement over Mesozoic strata, and (2) a series of west-vergent thrusts pertaining to the West Andean Thrust System, deforming primarily Mesozoic units. From our interpreted sections, we estimate that both structures together accommodate at least ∼6 –9 km of shortening across the sole investigated ∼7 –17 km wide field sites. This multi-kilometric shortening represents only a fraction of the total shortening accommodated across the whole Western Andes. The timing of the main deformation recorded in the folded Mesozoic series can be bracketed between ∼68 and ∼29 Ma – and possibly between ∼68 and ∼44 Ma – from dated deformed geological layers, with a subsequent significant slowing-down of shortening rates. Even though the structures forming the Western Andes only absorbed a small fraction of the total shortening across the whole orogen, their contribution was relatively significant at the earliest stages of Andean mountain building before deformation proceeded eastward. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reconstructing precipitation and wind from the geological record could help researchers understand the potential changes in precipitation and wind dynamics in response to climate change in Peru. The last deglaciation offers natural experimental conditions to test the response of precipitation and wind dynamics to high-latitude forcing. While considerable research has been done to reconstruct precipitation variability during the last deglaciation in the Atlantic sector of South America, the Pacific sector of South America has received little attention. This work aims to fill this gap by reconstructing types of terrigenous transport to the central–southern Peruvian margin (12 and 14 ∘ S) during the last deglaciation (18–13 kyr BP). For this purpose, we used grain-size distribution in sediments of marine core M77/2-005-3 (Callao, 12 ∘ S) and core G14 (Pisco, 14 ∘ S). We analyzed end-members (EMs) to identify grain-size components and reconstruct potential sources and transport processes of terrigenous material across time. We identified four end-members for both Callao and Pisco sediments. In Callao, we propose that the changes in the contributions of EM4 (101 µm) and EM2 (58 µm) mainly reflect the hydrodynamic energy and diffuse sources, respectively, while the variations in EM3 (77 µm) and EM1 (11 µm) reflect changes in the eolian and fluvial inputs, respectively. In Pisco, where there are strong winds and an extensive coastal desert, changes in the contribution of EM1 (10 µm) reflect changes in river inputs, while EM2 (52 µm), EM3 (75 µm), and EM4 (94 µm) reflect an eolian origin. At millennial scale, our record shows an increase in the fluvial inputs during the last part of Heinrich Stadial 1 (∼16 –14.7 kyr BP) at both locations. This increase was linked to higher precipitation in the Andes related to a reduction of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation and meltwater discharge in the North Atlantic. In contrast, during the Bølling–Allerød interstadial (∼14.7 –13 kyr BP), there was an eolian input increase, associated with stronger winds and lower precipitation that indicate an expansion of the South Pacific Subtropical High. These conditions would correspond to a northern displacement of the Intertropical Convergence Zone–South Pacific Subtropical High system associated with a stronger Walker circulation. Our results suggest that variations in river discharge and changes in surface wind intensity in the western margin of South America during the last deglaciation were sensitive to Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation variations and the Walker circulation on millennial timescales. In the context of global warming, large-scale increases in precipitation and fluvial discharge in the Andes as a result of a declining Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation and southward displacement of the Intertropical Convergence Zone should be considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present a comprehensive study of the evolution of the glaciers on the Antisana ice cap (tropical Andes) over the period 1956–2016. Based on geodetic observations of aerial photographs and high-resolution satellite images, we explore the effects of morpho-topographic and climate variables on glacier volumes. Contrasting behaviour was observed over the whole period, with two periods of strong mass loss, 1956–1964 (-0.72 m w.e. yr -1) and 1979–1997 (-0.82 m w.e. yr -1), and two periods with slight mass loss, 1965–1978 (0.10 m w.e. yr -1) and 1998–2016 (-0.26 m w.e. yr -1). There was a 42 % reduction in the total surface area of the ice cap. Individually, glacier responses were modulated by morpho-topographic variables (e.g. maximum and median altitude and surface area), particularly in the case of the small tongues located at low elevations (Glacier 1, 5 and 16) which have been undergoing accelerated disintegration since the 1990s and will likely disappear in the coming years. Moreover, thanks to the availability of aerial data, a surging event was detected on the Antisana Glacier 8 (G8) in the 2009–2011 period; such an event is extremely rare in this region and deserves a dedicated study. Despite the effect of the complex topography, glaciers have reacted in agreement with changes in climate forcing, with a stepwise transition towards warmer and alternating wet–dry conditions since the mid-1970s. Long-term decadal variability is consistent with the warm–cold conditions observed in the Pacific Ocean represented by the Southern Oscillation index. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Frost cracking is a dominant mechanical weathering phenomenon facilitating the breakdown of bedrock in periglacial regions. Despite recent advances in understanding frost cracking processes, few studies have addressed how global climate change over the late Cenozoic may have impacted spatial variations in frost cracking intensity. In this study, we estimate global changes in frost cracking intensity (FCI) by segregation ice growth. Existing process-based models of FCI are applied in combination with soil thickness data from the Harmonized World Soil Database. Temporal and spatial variations in FCI are predicted using surface temperature changes obtained from ECHAM5 general circulation model simulations conducted for four different paleoclimate time slices. Time slices considered include pre-industrial (∼ 1850 CE, PI), mid-Holocene (∼ 6 ka, MH), Last Glacial Maximum (∼ 21 ka, LGM), and Pliocene (∼ 3 Ma, PLIO) times. Results indicate for all paleoclimate time slices that frost cracking was most prevalent (relative to PI times) in the middle- to high-latitude regions, as well as high-elevation lower-latitude areas such the Himalayas, Tibet, the European Alps, the Japanese Alps, the US Rocky Mountains, and the Andes Mountains. The smallest deviations in frost cracking (relative to PI conditions) were observed in the MH simulation, which yielded slightly higher FCI values in most of the areas. In contrast, larger deviations were observed in the simulations of the colder climate (LGM) and warmer climate (PLIO). Our results indicate that the impact of climate change on frost cracking was most severe during the PI–LGM period due to higher differences in temperatures and glaciation at higher latitudes. The PLIO results indicate low FCI in the Andes and higher values of FCI in Greenland and Canada due to the diminished extent of glaciation in the warmer PLIO climate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Tropical Andes is a biodiversity hotspot facing pressure from planned and ongoing hydropower development. However, the effects of dams on river ecosystems of the region as mediated by physico-chemical changes to water quality are poorly known. Colombia is unique among its peers in South America for managing central public environmental databases, including surface water quality data sets associated with environmental monitoring of dams. To assess the relationship between hydropower and Colombian river conditions, we analyze monitoring data, focusing on oxygen availability, thermal regimes and sediment losses because these properties are influenced directly by river damming and impose fundamental constraints on the structure of downstream aquatic ecosystems. We find that most Colombian dams seasonally reduce concentrations of total suspended solids by large percentages (50-99%) through sediment trapping and, via discharge of warm reservoir surface waters, seasonally increase river temperatures by 2 to 4°C with respect to upstream conditions. A subset of dams generates downstream hypoxia (<4 mg L-1) and water 2 to 5°C colder than inflows--both processes driven by the turbination and discharge of cold and anoxic hypolimnetic waters during periods of reservoir stratification. Reliance on monitoring data likely leads us to under-detect impacts because many rivers are only sampled once or twice per year and cannot capture temporal shifts across seasons and days (i.e. in response to hydropeaking). Despite these blind spots, the monitoring data point to some opportunities for planners and hydropower companies to mitigate downstream ecological impacts. These findings affirm the scientific utility and importance of environmental monitoring schemes associated with hydrologic infrastructure in developing countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rainfall-induced landslides (RILs) are an issue in the southern Andes nowadays. RILs cause loss of life and damage to critical infrastructure. Rainfall-induced landslide early warning systems (RILEWSs) can reduce and mitigate economic and social damages related to RIL events. The southern Andes do not have an operational-scale RILEWS yet. In this contribution, we present a pre-operational RILEWS based on the Weather and Research Forecast (WRF) model and geomorphological features coupled to logistic models in the southern Andes. The models have been forced using precipitation simulations. We correct the precipitation derived from WRF using 12 weather stations through a bias correction approach. The models were trained using 57 well-characterized RILs and validated by ROC analysis. We show that WRF has strong limitations in representing the spatial variability in the precipitation. Therefore, accurate precipitation needs a bias correction in the study zone. We used accurate precipitation simulation and slope, demonstrating a high predicting capacity (area under the curve, AUC, of 0.80). We conclude that our proposal could be suitable at an operational level under determined conditions. A reliable RIL database and operational weather networks that allow real-time correction of the mesoscale model in the implemented zone are needed. The RILEWSs could become a support to decision-makers during extreme-precipitation events related to climate change in the south of the Andes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In semi-arid Chile, rock glaciers cover more surface area than glaciers and are potentially important water reserves. To understand their current and future hydrological role, it is necessary to characterize their internal structure (e.g. internal boundaries and ice, air, water and rock content). In this study, we present the results and interpretations of profiles of electrical resistivity and refraction seismic tomography collected on two contrasting rock glaciers in the Chilean Andes located at the headwaters of the Elqui River within the Estero Derecho nature reserve. These geophysical measurements are interpreted both independently and jointly through a scheme of petrophysical four-phase inversion. These first in situ measurements in Estero Derecho confirm that El Ternero (intact rock glacier) contains a significant volume of ground ice, while El Jote contains little to no ice (relict rock glacier). Within our study, we highlight the strong differences in the geophysical responses between intact and relict rock glaciers and propose a diagnostic model that differentiates between them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Improving our understanding of hydrogeological processes on the western flank of the central Andes is critical to communities living in this arid region. Groundwater emerging as springs at low elevations provides water for drinking, agriculture, and baseflow. However, the high-elevation sources of recharge and groundwater flow paths that convey groundwater to lower elevations where the springs emerge remain poorly quantified in the volcanic mountain terrain of southern Peru. In this study, we identified recharge zones and groundwater flow paths supporting springs east of the city of Arequipa and the potential for recharge within the high-elevation closed-basin Lagunas Salinas salar. We used general chemistry and isotopic tracers (δ 18O , δ 2H , and 3H) in springs, surface waters (rivers and the salar), and precipitation (rain and snow) sampled from March 2019 through February 2020 to investigate these processes. We obtained monthly samples from six springs, bimonthly samples from four rivers, and various samples from high-elevation springs during the dry season. The monthly isotopic composition of spring water was invariable seasonally in this study and compared to published values from a decade prior, suggesting that the source of recharge and groundwater flow paths that support spring flow is relatively stable with time. The chemistry of springs in the low-elevations and mid-elevations (2500 to 2900 m a.s.l.) point towards a mix of recharge from the salar basin (4300 m a.s.l.) and mountain-block recharge (MBR) in or above a queñuales forest ecosystem at ∼4000 m a.s.l. on the adjacent Pichu Pichu volcano. Springs that clustered along the Río Andamayo, including those at 2900 m a.s.l., had higher chloride concentrations, indicating higher proportions of interbasin groundwater flow from the salar basin likely facilitated by a high degree of faulting along the Río Andamayo valley compared to springs further away from that fault network. A separate groundwater flow path was identified by higher sulfate concentrations (and lower Cl-/SO4-2 ratios) within the Pichu Pichu volcanic mountain range separating the city from the salar. We conclude that the salar basin is not a hydrologic dead end. Instead, it is a local topographic low where surface runoff during the wet season, groundwater from springs, and subsurface groundwater flow paths from the surrounding mountains converge in the basin, and some mixture of this water supports groundwater flow out of the salar basin via interbasin groundwater flow. In this arid location, high-elevation forests and the closed-basin salar are important sources of recharge supporting low-elevation springs. These features should be carefully managed to prevent impacts on the down-valley water quality and quantity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the semi-arid Peruvian Andes, the growing season is mostly determined by the timing of the onset and retreat of the wet season, to which annual crop yields are highly sensitive. Recently, local farmers in the Rio Santa basin (RSB) reported more erratic rainy season onsets and further challenges related to changes in rainfall characteristics. Previous studies based on local rain gauges, however, did not find any significant long-term rainfall changes, potentially linked to the scarce data basis and inherent difficulties in capturing the highly variable rainfall distribution typical for complex mountain terrain. To date, there remains considerable uncertainty in the RSB regarding changes in plant-available water over the last decades. In this study, we exploit satellite-derived information of high-resolution vegetation greenness as an integrated proxy to derive variability and trends of plant water availability. By combining MODIS Aqua and Terra vegetation indices (VIs), datasets of precipitation (both for 2000–2020) and soil moisture (since 2015), we explore recent spatio-temporal changes in the vegetation growing season. We find the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) to be coupled to soil moisture on a sub-seasonal basis, while NDVI and rainfall only coincide on interannual timescales. Over 20 years, we find significant greening in the RSB, particularly pronounced during the dry season (austral winter), indicating an overall increase in plant-available water over the past 2 decades. The start of the growing season (SOS) exhibits high interannual variability of up to 2 months compared to the end of the growing season (EOS), which varies by up to 1 month, therefore dominating the variability of the growing season length (LOS). The EOS becomes significantly delayed over the analysis period, matching the observed dry-season greening. While both in situ and gridded rainfall datasets show incoherent changes in annual rainfall for the region, Climate Hazards InfraRed Precipitation with Station data (CHIRPS) rainfall suggests significant positive dry-season trends for 2 months coinciding with the most pronounced greening. As the greening signal is strongly seasonal and reaches high altitudes on unglaciated valley slopes, we cannot link this signal to water storage changes on timescales beyond one rainy season, making interannual rainfall variability the most likely driver. Exploring El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) control on greening, we find an overall increased LOS linked to an earlier SOS in El Niño years, which however cannot explain the observed greening and delayed EOS. While our study could not corroborate anecdotal evidence of recent changes, we confirm that the SOS is highly variable and conclude that rainfed farming in the RSB would profit from future efforts being directed towards improving medium-range forecasts of the rainy season onset. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Andean volcanism occurs within the Andean Volcanic Arc (AVA), which is the product of subduction of the Nazca Plate and Antarctica Plates beneath the South America Plate. The AVA is Earth's longest but discontinuous continental-margin volcanic arc, which consists of four distinct segments: Northern Volcanic Zone, Central Volcanic Zone, Southern Volcanic Zone, and Austral Volcanic Zone. These segments are separated by volcanically inactive gaps that are inferred to indicate regions where the dips of the subducting plates are too shallow to favor the magma generation needed to sustain volcanism. The Andes host more volcanoes that have been active during the Holocene (past 10 000 years) than any other volcanic region in the world, as well as giant caldera systems that have produced 6 of the 47 largest explosive eruptions (so-called "super eruptions") recognized worldwide that have occurred from the Ordovician to the Pleistocene. The Andean region's most powerful historical explosive eruption occurred in 1600 at Huaynaputina Volcano (Peru). The impacts of this event, whose eruptive volume exceeded 11 km³, were widespread, with distal ashfall reported at distances >1000 km away. Despite the huge size of the Huaynaputina eruption, human fatalities from hazardous processes (pyroclastic flows, ashfalls, volcanogenic earthquakes, and lahars) were comparatively small owing to the low population density at the time. In contrast, lahars generated by a much smaller eruption (<0.05 km³) in 1985 of Nevado del Ruiz (Colombia) killed about 25 000 people -- the worst volcanic disaster in the Andean region as well as the second worst in the world in the 20th century. The Ruiz tragedy has been attributed largely to ineffective communications of hazards information and indecisiveness by government officials, rather than any major deficiencies in scientific data. Ruiz's disastrous outcome, however, together with responses to subsequent hazardous eruptions in Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru has spurred significant improvements in reducing volcano risk in the Andean region. But much remains to be done. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Debris flow generation in volcanic zones in the southern Andes has not been widely studied, despite the enormous economic and infrastructure damage that these events can generate. The present work contributes to the understanding of these dynamics based on a study of the 2017 Petrohué debris flow event from two complementary points of view. First, a comprehensive field survey allowed us to determine that a rockfall initiated the debris flow due to an intense rainfall event. The rockfall lithology corresponds to lava blocks and autobrecciated lavas, predominantly over 1500 m a.s.l. Second, the process was numerically modelled and constrained by in situ data collection and geomorphological mapping. The event was studied by back analysis using the height of flow measured on Route CH-255 with errors of 5 %. Debris flow volume has a high sensitivity with the initial water content in the block fall zone, ranging from 4.7×105 up to 5.5×105 m 3 , depending on the digital elevation model (DEM) used. Therefore, debris flow showed that the zone is controlled by the initial water content available previous to the block fall. Moreover, our field data suggest that future debris flows events can take place, removing material from the volcanic edifice. We conclude that similar events could occur in the future and that it is necessary to increase the mapping of zones with autobrecciated lava close to the volcano summit. The study contributes to the understanding of debris flows in the southern Andes since the Osorno volcano shares similar features with other stratovolcanoes in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Physically based snow models provide valuable information on snow cover evolution and are therefore key to provide water availability projections. Yet, uncertainties related to snow modelling remain large as a result of differences in the representation of snow physics and meteorological forcing. While many studies focus on evaluating these uncertainties, no snow model comparison has been done in environments where sublimation is the main ablation process. This study evaluates a case study in the semi-arid Andes of Chile and aims to compare two snow models with different complexities, SNOWPACK and SnowModel, at a local point over one snow season and to evaluate their sensitivity relative to parameterisation and forcing. For that purpose, the two models are forced with (i) the most ideal set of input parameters, (ii) an ensemble of different physical parameterisations, and (iii) an ensemble of biased forcing. Results indicate large uncertainties depending on forcing, the snow roughness length z0 , albedo parameterisation, and fresh snow density parameterisation. The uncertainty caused by the forcing is directly related to the bias chosen. Even though the models show significant differences in their physical complexity, the snow model choice is of least importance, as the sensitivity of both models to the forcing data was on the same order of magnitude and highly influenced by the precipitation uncertainties. The sublimation ratio ranges are in agreement for the two models: 36.4 % to 80.7 % for SnowModel and 36.3 % to 86.0 % for SNOWPACK, and are related to the albedo parameterisation and snow roughness length choice for the two models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Glaciers and ice caps are thinning and retreating along the entire Andes ridge, and drivers of this mass loss vary between the different climate zones. The southern part of the Andes (Wet Andes) has the highest abundance of glaciers in number and size, and a proper understanding of ice dynamics is important to assess their evolution. In this contribution, we apply the ice-sheet model SICOPOLIS (SImulation COde for POLythermal Ice Sheets) to the Mocho-Choshuenco ice cap in the Chilean Lake District (40 ∘ S, 72 ∘ W; Wet Andes) to reproduce its current state and to project its evolution until the end of the 21st century under different global warming scenarios. First, we create a model spin-up using observed surface mass balance data on the south-eastern catchment, extrapolating them to the whole ice cap using an aspect-dependent parameterization. This spin-up is able to reproduce the most important present-day glacier features. Based on the spin-up, we then run the model 80 years into the future, forced by projected surface temperature anomalies from different global climate models under different radiative pathway scenarios to obtain estimates of the ice cap's state by the end of the 21st century. The mean projected ice volume losses are 56±16 % (RCP2.6), 81±6 % (RCP4.5), and 97±2 % (RCP8.5) with respect to the ice volume estimated by radio-echo sounding data from 2013. We estimate the uncertainty of our projections based on the spread of the results when forcing with different global climate models and on the uncertainty associated with the variation of the equilibrium line altitude with temperature change. Considering our results, we project a considerable deglaciation of the Chilean Lake District by the end of the 21st century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Along with habitat transformation, climate change has profound impacts on biodiversity and may alter ecosystem services on which human welfare depends. Many studies of the carbon cycle have focused on lowland tropical forests; however, upland forests have been less explored despite their pivotal role in carbon sequestration. Here, I synthesized the state of knowledge on the allocation of carbon in its different stocks (aboveground, belowground, and soil) as well as in its main fluxes (plant decomposition, respiration, and litterfall) in tropical upland ecosystems of the planet. In November 2020, a systematic review was carried out to identify references published from 2000 to 2020 through a combination of key terms in Google Scholar and Scopus databases, thus analysing bibliographic, geographical, methodological, and carbon cycling information of the global upland tropics (between 23.5 ∘ N–23.5 ∘ S). After analysing a total of 1967 references according to inclusion–exclusion criteria, 135 references published in the last 20 years were selected. Most of the studies were conducted in the tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forest of South America. The main factors studied were elevation and forest type. Forest structure and soil variables were largely associated when studying carbon cycling in these ecosystems. Estimations of carbon stocks comprised three-fourths of the total studies, while the remaining fraction focused on carbon fluxes. Aboveground biomass and carbon in soils were highly investigated, while plant decomposition and respiration were the components that received the least attention. Even though in the last 20 years there was a slight increase in the number of studies on carbon cycle in tropical upland forests, I found bias associated with the biomes and ecoregions studied (especially in the Andes). Elevation was the main factor examined but other essential aspects such as the successional gradient, landscape management, diversity–productivity relationship, faunal and microbial effect, trophic cascades, and Gadgil effect require more attention. The inclusion of different litter species and origins (i.e. roots and stems) and theoretical frameworks including home-field advantage, substrate–matrix interaction, and phenology–substrate match may provide explanatory mechanisms to better understand litter decomposition over these forests. Despite respiration being a paramount link that is closely tied to above- and belowground compartment, this flux constitutes one of the important gaps to fulfil in future research. For a comprehensive understanding of the carbon cycle in upland forests, it is necessary to obtain information on its main fluxes and integrate them into climate change mitigation plans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global patterns of sea-level change – often termed "sea-level fingerprints" – associated with future changes in ice/water mass re-distribution are a key component in generating regional sea-level projections. Calculation of these fingerprints is commonly based on the assumption that the isostatic response of the Earth is dominantly elastic on century timescales. While this assumption is accurate for regions underlain by mantle material with viscosity close to that of global average estimates, recent work focusing on the West Antarctic region has shown that this assumption can lead to significant error where the viscosity is significantly lower than typical global average values. Here, we test this assumption for fingerprints associated with glaciers and ice caps. We compare output from a (1D) elastic Earth model to that of a 3D viscoelastic model that includes low-viscosity mantle in three glaciated regions: Alaska, southwestern Canada, and the southern Andes (Randolph Glacier Inventory (RGI) regions 1, 2, and 17, respectively). This comparison indicates that the error incurred by ignoring the non-elastic response is of the order of 1 mm in most areas (or about 1 % of the barystatic signal) over the 21st century with values reaching the centimetre level in glaciated regions. However, in glaciated regions underlain by low-viscosity mantle, the non-elastic deformation can result in relative sea-level changes with magnitudes of up to several tens of centimetres (or several times the barystatic value). The magnitude and spatial pattern of this non-elastic signal is sensitive to variations in both the projected ice history and regional viscosity structure, indicating the need for loading models with high spatial resolution and improved constraints on regional Earth viscosity structure to accurately simulate sea-level fingerprints in these regions. The anomalously low mantle viscosity in these regions also amplifies the glacial isostatic adjustment signal associated with glacier changes during the 20th century, causing it to be an important (and even dominant) contributor to the modelled relative sea-level changes over the 21st century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The climate in the Amazon region is particularly sensitive to surface processes and properties such as heat fluxes and vegetation coverage. Rainfall is a key expression of the land surface–atmosphere interactions in the region due to its strong dependence on forest transpiration. While a large number of past studies have shown the impacts of large-scale deforestation on annual rainfall, studies on the isolated effects of elevated atmospheric CO 2 concentrations (eCO 2) on canopy transpiration and rainfall are scarcer. Here, for the first time, we systematically compare the plant physiological effects of eCO 2 and deforestation on Amazon rainfall. We use the CPTEC Brazilian Atmospheric Model (BAM) with dynamic vegetation under a 1.5 × CO 2 experiment and a 100 % substitution of the forest by pasture grasslands, with all other conditions held similar between the two scenarios. We find that both scenarios result in equivalent average annual rainfall reductions (Physiology: - 257 mm, - 12 %; Deforestation: - 183 mm, - 9 %) that are above the observed Amazon rainfall interannual variability of 5 %. The rainfall decreases predicted in the two scenarios are linked to a reduction of approximately 20 % in canopy transpiration but for different reasons: the eCO 2 -driven reduction of stomatal conductance drives the change in the Physiology experiment, and the smaller leaf area index of pasturelands (- 72 % compared to tropical forest) causes the result in the Deforestation experiment. The Walker circulation is modified in the two scenarios: in Physiology due to a humidity-enriched free troposphere with decreased deep convection due to the heightening of a drier and warmer (+ 2.1 ∘ C) boundary layer, and in Deforestation due to enhanced convection over the Andes and a subsidence branch over the eastern Amazon without considerable changes in temperature (- 0.2 ∘ C in 2 m air temperature and + 0.4 ∘ C in surface temperature). But again, these changes occur through different mechanisms: strengthened west winds from the Pacific and reduced easterlies entering the basin affect the Physiology experiment, and strongly increased easterlies influence the result of the Deforestation experiment. Although our results for the Deforestation scenario agree with the results of previous observational and modelling studies, the lack of direct field-based ecosystem-level experimental evidence regarding the effect of eCO 2 on moisture fluxes in tropical forests confers a considerable level of uncertainty to any projections of the physiological effect of eCO 2 on Amazon rainfall. Furthermore, our results highlight the responsibilities of both Amazonian and non-Amazonian countries to mitigate potential future climatic change and its impacts in the region, driven either by local deforestation or global CO 2 emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]