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Melt ponds are a core component of the summer sea ice system in the Arctic, increasing the uptake of solar energy and impacting the ice-associated ecosystem. They were thus one of the key topics during the 1-year drift campaign Multidisciplinary drifting Observatory for the Study of Arctic Climate (MOSAiC) in the Transpolar Drift 2019/2020. Pond depth is a dominating factor in describing the surface meltwater volume; it is necessary to estimate budgets and used in model parameterization to simulate pond coverage evolution. However, observational data on pond depth are spatially and temporally strongly limited to a few in situ measurements. Pond bathymetry, which is pond depth spatially fully resolved, remains unexplored. Here, we present a newly developed method to derive pond bathymetry from aerial images. We determine it from a photogrammetric multi-view reconstruction of the summer ice surface topography. Based on images recorded on dedicated grid flights and facilitated assumptions, we were able to obtain pond depth with a mean deviation of 3.5 cm compared to manual in situ observations. The method is independent of pond color and sky conditions, which is an advantage over recently developed radiometric airborne retrieval methods. It can furthermore be implemented in any typical photogrammetry workflow. We present the retrieval algorithm, including requirements for the data recording and survey planning, and a correction method for refraction at the air–pond interface. In addition, we show how the retrieved surface topography model synergizes with the initial image data to retrieve the water level of individual ponds from the visually determined pond margins. We use the method to give a profound overview of the pond coverage on the MOSAiC floe, on which we found unexpected steady pond coverage and volume. We were able to derive individual pond properties of more than 1600 ponds on the floe, including their size, bathymetry, volume, surface elevation above sea level, and temporal evolution. We present a scaling factor for single in situ depth measurements, discuss the representativeness of in situ pond measurements and the importance of such high-resolution data for new satellite retrievals, and show indications for non-rigid pond bottoms. The study points out the great potential to derive geometric properties of the summer sea ice surface emerging from the increasingly available visual image data recorded from uncrewed aerial vehicles (UAVs) or aircraft, allowing for an integrated understanding and improved formulation of the thermodynamic and hydrological pond system in models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Melt ponds are a core component of the summer sea ice system in the Arctic, increasing the uptake of solar energy and impacting the ice-associated ecosystem. They were thus one of the key topics during the one-year drift campaign MOSAiC in the Transpolar Drift 2019/2020. Pond depth is a dominating factor in the description of the surface meltwater volume, necessary to estimate budgets, and used in model parametrization to simulate pond coverage evolution. However, observational data on pond depth is spatially and temporally strongly limited to a few in situ measurements. Pond bathymetry, which is pond depth spatially fully resolved, remains entirely unexplored. Here, we present a newly developed method to derive pond bathymetry from aerial images. We determine it from a photogrammetric multi-view reconstruction of the summer ice surface topography. Based on images recorded on dedicated grid flights and facilitated assumptions, we were able to obtain pond depth with a mean deviation of 3.5 cm compared to manual in situ observations. The method is independent of pond color and sky conditions, which is an advantage over recently developed radiometric airborne retrieval methods. It can furthermore be implemented in any typical photogrammetry workflow. We present the retrieval algorithm, including requirements for the data recording and survey planning, and a correction method for refraction at the air—pond interface. In addition, we show how the retrieved surface topography model synergizes with the initial image data to retrieve the water level of individual ponds from the visually determined pond margins. We use the method to give a profound overview of the pond coverage on the MOSAiC floe, on which we found unexpected steady pond coverage and volume. We were able to derive individual pond properties of more than 1600 ponds on the floe, including their size, bathymetry, volume, surface elevation above sea level, and temporal evolution. We present a scaling factor for single in situ depth measurements, discuss the representativeness of in situ pond measurements, and show indications for non-rigid pond bottoms. The study points out the great potential to derive geometric properties of the summer sea-ice surface emerging from the increasingly available visual image data recorded from UAVs or aircraft, allowing for an integrated understanding and improved formulation of the thermodynamic and hydrological pond system in models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In March 2013, the Springtime Atmospheric Boundary Layer Experiment (STABLE) was carried out in the Fram Strait region and over Svalbard to investigate atmospheric convection and boundary layer modifications due to interactions between sea ice, the atmosphere, and open water. A major goal was the observation of marine cold-air outbreaks (MCAOs), which are typically characterised by the transport of very cold air masses from the ice-covered ocean over a relatively warm water surface and which often affect local and regional weather conditions. During STABLE, MCAOs were observed on 4 d within a period displaying a strongly northward-shifted sea ice edge north of Svalbard and, thus, with an unusually large Whaler's Bay polynya. The observations mainly consisted of in situ measurements from airborne instruments and of measurements by dropsondes. Here, we present the corresponding data set from a total of 15 aircraft vertical profiles and 22 dropsonde releases. Besides an overview of the flight patterns and instrumentation, we provide a detailed presentation of the individual quality-processing mechanisms, which ensure that the data can be used, for example, for model validation. Moreover, we discuss the effects of the individual quality-processing mechanisms, and we briefly present the main characteristics of the MCAOs based on the quality-controlled data. All 37 data series are published on the World Data Center PANGAEA 10.1594/PANGAEA.936635. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In March 2013, the Springtime Atmospheric Boundary Layer Experiment (STABLE) was carried out in the region of Fram Strait and over Svalbard to investigate atmospheric convection and boundary layer modifications due to interactions between sea ice, atmosphere, and open water. A major goal was the observation of marine cold-air outbreaks (MCAOs), which are typically characterised by a transport of very cold air masses from the ice-covered ocean over a relatively warm water surface, and which often affect local and regional weather conditions. During STABLE, such MCAOs were observed on four days within a period of a strongly northward shifted sea ice edge north of Svalbard and thus with an unusually large Whaler's Bay Polynya. The observations mainly consisted of in situ measurements from airborne instruments and of measurements by dropsondes. Here, we present the corresponding data set from, in total, 15 aircraft vertical profiles and 22 dropsonde releases. Besides an overview on flight patterns and instrumentation, we provide a detailed presentation of the individual quality-processing mechanisms, which ensure that the data can be used, for example, for model validation. A few remarks are also given on data quality and on some characteristics of the MCAOs based on the quality-processed data. All 37 data series are published in the World Data Center PANGAEA (Lüpkes et al., 2021a, https://doi.pangaea.de/10.1594/PANGAEA.936635). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Changes in Arctic sea ice thickness are the result of complex interactions of the dynamic and variable ice cover with atmosphere and ocean. Most of the sea ice exiting the Arctic Ocean does so through Fram Strait, which is why long-term measurements of ice thickness at the end of the Transpolar Drift provide insight into the integrated signals of thermodynamic and dynamic influences along the pathways of Arctic sea ice. We present an updated summer (July–August) time series of extensive ice thickness surveys carried out at the end of the Transpolar Drift between 2001 and 2020. Overall, we see a more than 20 % thinning of modal ice thickness since 2001. A comparison of this time series with first preliminary results from the international Multidisciplinary drifting Observatory for the Study of Arctic Climate (MOSAiC) shows that the modal summer thickness of the MOSAiC floe and its wider vicinity are consistent with measurements from previous years at the end of the Transpolar Drift. By combining this unique time series with the Lagrangian sea ice tracking tool, ICETrack, and a simple thermodynamic sea ice growth model, we link the observed interannual ice thickness variability north of Fram Strait to increased drift speeds along the Transpolar Drift and the consequential variations in sea ice age. We also show that the increased influence of upward-directed ocean heat flux in the eastern marginal ice zones, termed Atlantification, is not only responsible for sea ice thinning in and around the Laptev Sea but also that the induced thickness anomalies persist beyond the Russian shelves and are potentially still measurable at the end of the Transpolar Drift after more than a year. With a tendency towards an even faster Transpolar Drift, winter sea ice growth will have less time to compensate for the impact processes, such as Atlantification, have on sea ice thickness in the eastern marginal ice zone, which will increasingly be felt in other parts of the sea-ice-covered Arctic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The surface reflection of solar radiation comprises an important boundary condition for solar radiative transfer simulations. In polar regions above snow surfaces, the surface reflection is particularly anisotropic due to low Sun elevations and the highly anisotropic scattering phase function of the snow crystals. The characterization of this surface reflection anisotropy is essential for satellite remote sensing over both the Arctic and Antarctica. To quantify the angular snow reflection properties, the hemispherical-directional reflectance factor (HDRF) of snow surfaces was derived from airborne measurements in Antarctica during austral summer in 2013/14. For this purpose, a digital 180 ∘ fish-eye camera (green channel, 490–585 nm wavelength band) was used. The HDRF was measured for different surface roughness conditions, optical-equivalent snow grain sizes, and solar zenith angles. The airborne observations covered an area of around 1000 km × 1000 km in the vicinity of Kohnen Station (75 ∘ 0 ′ S, 0 ∘ 4 ′ E) at the outer part of the East Antarctic Plateau. The observations include regions with higher (coastal areas) and lower (inner Antarctica) precipitation amounts and frequencies. The digital camera provided upward, angular-dependent radiance measurements from the lower hemisphere. The comparison of the measured HDRF derived for smooth and rough snow surfaces (sastrugi) showed significant differences, which are superimposed on the diurnal cycle. By inverting a semi-empirical kernel-driven bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) model, the measured HDRF of snow surfaces was parameterized as a function of solar zenith angle, surface roughness, and optical-equivalent snow grain size. This allows a direct comparison of the HDRF measurements with the BRDF derived from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite product MCD43. For the analyzed cases, MODIS observations (545–565 nm wavelength band) generally underestimated the anisotropy of the surface reflection. The largest deviations were found for the volumetric model weight fvol (average underestimation by a factor of 10). These deviations are likely linked to short-term changes in snow properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We evaluate modelled Antarctic ice sheet (AIS) near-surface climate, surface mass balance (SMB) and surface energy balance (SEB) from the updated polar version of the regional atmospheric climate model, RACMO2 (1979-2016). The updated model, referred to as RACMO2.3p2, incorporates upper-air relaxation, a revised topography, tuned parameters in the cloud scheme to generate more precipitation towards the AIS interior and modified snow properties reducing drifting snow sublimation and increasing surface snowmelt. Comparisons of RACMO2 model output with several independent observational data show that the existing biases in AIS temperature, radiative fluxes and SMB components are further reduced with respect to the previous model version. The model-integrated annual average SMB for the ice sheet including ice shelves (minus the Antarctic Peninsula, AP) now amounts to 2229 Gt with an interannual variability of 109 Gt y-1. The largest improvement is found in modelled surface snowmelt, which now compares well with satellite and weather station observations. For the high-resolution (~5.5 km) AP simulation, results remain comparable to earlier studies. The updated model provides a new, high-resolution data set of the contemporary near-surface climate and SMB of the AIS; this model version will be used for future climate scenario projections in a forthcoming study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The optical-equivalent snow grain size affects the reflectivity of snow surfaces and, thus, the local surface energy budget in particular in polar regions. Therefore, the specific surface area (SSA), from which the optical snow grain size is derived, was observed for a 2-month period in central Antarctica (Kohnen research station) during austral summer 2013/14. The data were retrieved on the basis of ground-based spectral surface albedo measurements collected by the COmpact RAdiation measurement System (CORAS) and airborne observations with the Spectral Modular Airborne Radiation measurement sysTem (SMART). The snow grain size and pollution amount (SGSP) algorithm, originally developed to analyze spaceborne reflectance measurements by the MODerate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), was modified in order to reduce the impact of the solar zenith angle on the retrieval results and to cover measurements in overcast conditions. Spectral ratios of surface albedo at 1280 and 1100 nm wavelength were used to reduce the retrieval uncertainty. The retrieval was applied to the ground-based and airborne observations and validated against optical in situ observations of SSA utilizing an IceCube device. The SSA retrieved from CORAS observations varied between 27 and 89m2 kg-1. Snowfall events caused distinct relative maxima of the SSA which were followed by a gradual decrease in SSA due to snow metamorphism and wind-induced transport of freshly fallen ice crystals. The ability of the modified algorithm to include measurements in overcast conditions improved the data coverage, in particular at times when precipitation events occurred and the SSA changed quickly. SSA retrieved from measurements with CORAS and MODIS agree with the in situ observations within the ranges given by the measurement uncertainties. However, SSA retrieved from the airborne SMART data slightly underestimated the ground-based results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quantifying the magnitude of post-depositional processes affecting the isotopic composition of surface snow is essential for a more accurate interpretation of ice core data. To achieve this, high temporal resolution measurements of both lower atmospheric water vapor and surface snow isotopic composition are required. This study presents continuous measurements of water vapor isotopes performed in East Antarctica (Kohnen station) from December 2013 to January 2014 using a laser spectrometer. Observations have been compared with the outputs of two atmospheric general circulation models (AGCMs) equipped with water vapor isotopes: ECHAM5-wiso and LMDZ5Aiso. During our monitoring period, the signals in the 2m air temperature T, humidity mixing ratio q and both water vapor isotopes δD and δ18O are dominated by the presence of diurnal cycles. Both AGCMs simulate similar diurnal cycles with a mean amplitude 30 to 70% lower than observed, possibly due to an incorrect simulation of the surface energy balance and the boundary layer dynamics. In parallel, snow surface samples were collected each hour over 35 h, with a sampling depth of 2-5 mm. A diurnal cycle in the isotopic composition of the snow surface is observed in phase with the water vapor, reaching a peak-to-peak amplitude of 3‰ for δD over 24 h (compared to 36‰for δD in the water vapor). A simple box model treated as a closed system has been developed to study the exchange of water molecules between an air and a snow reservoir. In the vapor, the box model simulations show too much isotopic depletion compared to the observations. Mixing with other sources (advection, free troposphere) has to be included in order to fit the observations. At the snow surface, the simulated isotopic values are close to the observations with a snow reservoir of ~5mm depth (range of the snow sample depth). Our analysis suggests that fractionation occurs during sublimation and that vapor-snow exchanges can no longer be considered insignificant for the isotopic composition of near-surface snow in polar regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three of the latest global reanalysis products, the regional climate model RACMO and the operational weather forecast system AMPS were evaluated against vertical profiles obtained from radio soundings on the Antarctic plateau. Measurements at Kohnen Station (75°S, 0°E, 2892 m a.s.l.), which represent independent in situ data, were performed in January 2006, December 2013 and January 2014 four times a day. JRA-55 had marginally the most accurate temperature profiles, MERRA-2 had the best relative humidity profiles and ERA-interim had the smallest errors in wind speed profiles. Biases and root mean-square errors vary considerably with altitude in the troposphere and in the tropopause region. Surface or elevated inversions in the lowermost 1000 m of the atmosphere are captured quite differently. ERA-interim always shows a surface inversion with thickness and temperature increase that hardly vary in the course of a day. Overall, the frequency of surface and elevated inversions is better captured at 00 UTC and 06 UTC compared to 12 UTC and 18 UTC in JRA-55 and MERRA-2 as well as in the two regional models, which indicates that processes in the boundary layer, which lead to an erosion of a surface inversion are still poorly represented in the models. All reanalyses and regional models are able to simulate a low-level jet. However, ERA-interim, RACMO and AMPS underestimate the frequency at all four observation times. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]