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Hydrothermal vents have emerged as an important source of iron to seawater, yet only a subset of iron is soluble and persists long enough to be available for surface biological uptake. The longevity and solubility of iron in seawater is governed by strong organic ligands, like siderophores, that are produced by marine microorganisms and are a part of the ocean's dissolved iron-binding ligand pool. These ligands have been hypothesized to aid in the persistence of dissolved iron in hydrothermal environments. To explore this hypothesis, we measured iron, iron-binding ligands, and siderophores from 11 geochemically distinct sites along a 1,700 km section of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Siderophores were found in hydrothermal plumes at all sites, with proximity to the vent playing an important role in dictating siderophore types and diversity. The notable presence of amphiphilic siderophores may point to microbial utilization of siderophores to access particulate hydrothermal iron, and the exchange of dissolved and particulate iron. The tight coupling between strong ligands and dissolved iron within neutrally buoyant plumes across six distinct hydrothermal environments, and the presence of dissolved siderophores with siderophore-producing microbial genera, suggests that biological production of siderophores exerts a key control on hydrothermal dissolved iron concentrations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Supply of iron (Fe) to the surface ocean supports primary productivity, and while hydrothermal input of Fe to the deep ocean is known to be extensive it remains poorly constrained. Global estimates of hydrothermal Fe supply rely on using dissolved Fe (dFe) to excess He (xs3He) ratios to upscale fluxes, but observational constraints on dFe/xs3He may be sensitive to assumptions linked to sampling and interpolation. We examined the variability in dFe/xs3He using two methods of estimation, for four vent sites with different geochemistry along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. At both Rainbow and TAG, the plume was sampled repeatedly and the range of dFe/xs3He was 4 to 63 and 4 to 87 nmol:fmol, respectively, primarily due to differences in plume age. To account for background xs3He and shifting plume position, we calibrated He values using contemporaneous dissolved Mn (dMn). Applying this approach more widely, we found dFe/xs3He ratios of 12, 4–8, 4–44, and 4–86 nmolfmol-1 for the Menez Gwen, Lucky Strike, Rainbow, and TAG hydrothermal vent sites, respectively. Differences in plume dFe/xs3He across sites were not simply related to the vent endmember Fe and He fluxes. Within 40 km of the vents, the dFe/xs3He ratios decreased to 3–38 nmolfmol-1 , due to the precipitation and subsequent settling of particulates. The ratio of colloidal Fe to dFe was consistently higher (0.67–0.97) than the deep N. Atlantic (0.5) throughout both the TAG and Rainbow plumes, indicative of Fe exchange between dissolved and particulate phases. Our comparison of TAG and Rainbow shows there is a limit to the amount of hydrothermal Fe released from vents that can form colloids in the rising plume. Higher particle loading will enhance the longevity of the Rainbow hydrothermal plume within the deep ocean assuming particles undergo continual dissolution/disaggregation. Future studies examining the length of plume pathways required to escape the ridge valley will be important in determining Fe supply from slow spreading mid-ocean ridges to the deep ocean, along with the frequency of ultramafic sites such as Rainbow. Resolving the ridge valley bathymetry and accounting for variability in vent sources in global biogeochemical models will be key to further constraining the hydrothermal Fe flux. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Supply of iron (Fe) to the surface ocean supports primary productivity and while hydrothermal input of Fe to the deep ocean is known to be extensive, it remains poorly constrained. Global estimates of hydrothermal Fe supply rely on using the dissolved Fe (dFe) to excess He (xs³ He) ratios to upscale fluxes, but observational constraints on dFe/xs³ He may be sensitive to assumptions linked to sampling and interpolation. We examined the variability in dFe/xs³ He using two methods of estimation, for four vent sites with different geochemistry along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. At both Rainbow and TAG, the plume was sampled repeatedly and the range of dFe/xs3 He was 4 to 63 and 4 to 87 nmol/fmol, respectively, primarily due to differences in plume age. To account for background xs³ He and shifting plume position, we calibrated He values using contemporaneous dissolved Mn (dMn). Applying this approach more widely, we found dFe/xs³ He ratios of 12, 4-8, 4-44, 4-86 nmol/fmol for the Menez Gwen, Lucky Strike, Rainbow and TAG hydrothermal vent sites, respectively. Differences in plume dFe/xs3 He across sites were not simply related to the vent end member Fe and He fluxes. Within 40 km of the vents, the dFe/xs³ He ratios decreased to 3-38 nmol/fmol, due to the precipitation and subsequent settling of particulates. The ratio of colloidal Fe to dFe was consistently higher (0.67-0.97) than the deep N. Atlantic (0.5) throughout both the TAG and Rainbow plumes, indicative of Fe exchange between dissolved and particulate phases. Our comparison of TAG and Rainbow shows there is a limit to the amount of hydrothermal Fe released from vents that can form colloids in the rising plume. Higher particle loading will enhance the longevity of the Rainbow hydrothermal plume within the deep ocean assuming particles undergo continual dissolution/disaggregation. Future studies examining the length of plume pathways required to escape the ridge valley will be important in determining Fe supply from slow spreading mid-ocean ridges to the deep ocean, along with the frequency of ultramafic sites such as Rainbow. Resolving the ridge valley bathymetry and accounting for variability in vent sources in global biogeochemical models will be key to further constraining the hydrothermal Fe flux. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report the distributions and stoichiometry of dissolved zinc (dZn) and cobalt (dCo) in sub-tropical and sub-Antarctic waters of the south-eastern Atlantic Ocean during austral spring 2010 and summer 2011/2012. In sub-tropical surface waters, mixed-layer dZn and dCo concentrations during early spring were 1.60 ± 2.58 nM and 30 ± 11 pM, respectively, compared with summer values of 0.14 ± 0.08 nM and 24 ± 6 pM. The elevated spring dZn concentrations resulted from an apparent offshore transport of elevated dZn at depths between 20–55 m, derived from the Agulhas Bank. In contrast, open-ocean sub-Antarctic surface waters displayed largely consistent inter-seasonal mixed-layer dZn and dCo concentrations of 0.10 ± 0.07 nM and 11 ± 5 pM, respectively. Trace metal stoichiometry, calculated from concentration inventories, suggests a greater overall removal for dZn relative to dCo in the upper water column of the south-eastern Atlantic, with inter-seasonally decreasing dZn / dCo inventory ratios of 19–5 and 13–7 mol mol -1 for sub-tropical surface water and sub-Antarctic surface water, respectively. In this paper, we investigate how the seasonal influences of external input and phytoplankton succession may relate to the distribution of dZn and dCo and variation in dZn / dCo stoichiometry across these two distinct ecological regimes in the south-eastern Atlantic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trace elements (TEs) play important roles as micronutrients in modulating marine productivity in the global ocean. The South Atlantic around 40 ∘ S is a prominent region of high productivity and a transition zone between the nitrate-depleted subtropical gyre and the iron-limited Southern Ocean. However, the sources and fluxes of trace elements to this region remain unclear. In this study, the distribution of the naturally occurring radioisotope 228 Ra in the water column of the South Atlantic (Cape Basin and Argentine Basin) has been investigated along a 40 ∘ S zonal transect to estimate ocean mixing and trace element supply to the surface ocean. Ra-228 profiles have been used to determine the horizontal and vertical mixing rates in the near-surface open ocean. In the Argentine Basin, horizontal mixing from the continental shelf to the open ocean shows an eddy diffusion of Kx=1.8±1.4 (10 6 cm 2 s -1) and an integrated advection velocity w=0.6±0.3 cm s -1. In the Cape Basin, horizontal mixing is Kx=2.7±0.8 (10 7 cm 2 s -1) and vertical mixing Kz = 1.0–1.7 cm 2 s -1 in the upper 600 m layer. Three different approaches (228 Ra diffusion, 228 Ra advection, and 228Ra/TE ratio) have been applied to estimate the dissolved trace element fluxes from the shelf to the open ocean. These approaches bracket the possible range of off-shelf fluxes from the Argentine Basin margin to be 4–21 (×103) nmol Co m -2 d -1 , 8–19 (×104) nmol Fe m -2 d -1 and 2.7–6.3 (×104) nmol Zn m -2 d -1. Off-shelf fluxes from the Cape Basin margin are 4.3–6.2 (×103) nmol Co m -2 d -1 , 1.2–3.1 (×104) nmol Fe m -2 d -1 , and 0.9–1.2 (×104) nmol Zn m -2 d -1. On average, at 40 ∘ S in the Atlantic, vertical mixing supplies 0.1–1.2 nmol Co m -2 d -1 , 6–9 nmol Fe m -2 d -1 , and 5–7 nmol Zn m -2 d -1 to the euphotic zone. Compared with atmospheric dust and continental shelf inputs, vertical mixing is a more important source for supplying dissolved trace elements to the surface 40 ∘ S Atlantic transect. It is insufficient, however, to provide the trace elements removed by biological uptake, particularly for Fe. Other inputs (e.g. particulate or from winter deep mixing) are required to balance the trace element budgets in this region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trace elements play important roles as micronutrients in modulating marine productivity in the global ocean. The South Atlantic around 40°S is a prominent region of high productivity and a transition zone between the nitrate-depleted Subtropical Gyre and the iron-limited Southern Ocean. However, the sources and fluxes of trace elements to this region remain unclear. In this study, the distribution of the naturally occurring radioisotope 228Ra in the water column of the South Atlantic (Cape Basin and Argentine Basin) has been investigated along a 40°S zonal transect to estimate ocean mixing and trace element supply to the surface ocean. Ra-228 profiles have been used to determine the horizontal and vertical mixing rates in the near-surface open ocean. In the Argentine Basin, horizontal mixing from the continental shelf to the open ocean shows an eddy diffusion of Kx = 1.7 ± 1.4 (106 cm² s-1) and an integrated advection velocity w = 0.6 ± 0.3 cm s-1. In the Cape Basin, horizontal mixing is Kx = 2.7 ± 0.8 (107 cm² s-1) and vertical mixing Kz = 1.0 - 1.5 cm² s-1 in the upper 600 m layer. Three different approaches (228Ra-diffusion, 228Ra-advection and 228Ra/TE-ratio) have been applied to estimate the dissolved trace-element fluxes from shelf to open ocean. These approaches bracket the possible range of off-shelf fluxes from the Argentine margin to be: 3.8 - 22 (x10³) nmol Co m-2 d-1, 7.9 - 20 (x104) nmol Fe m-2 d-1 and 2.7 - 6.5 (x104) nmol Zn m-2 d-1. Off-shelf fluxes from the Cape margin are: 4.3 - 6.2 (x10³) nmol Co m-2 d-1, 1.2 - 3.1 (x104) nmol Fe m-2 d-1 and 0.9 - 1.2 (x104) nmol Zn m-2 d-1. On average, at 40°S in the Atlantic, vertical mixing supplies 0.4 - 1.2 nmol Co m-2 d-1, 3.6 - 11 nmol Fe m-2 d-1, and 13 - 16 nmol Zn m-2 d-1 to the euphotic zone. Compared with atmospheric dust and continental shelf inputs, vertical mixing is a more important source for supplying dissolved trace elements to the surface 40°S Atlantic. It is insufficient, however, to provide the trace elements removed by biological uptake. Other inputs (e.g. particulate, or from [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trichodesmium is a globally important marine microbe that provides fixed nitrogen (N) to otherwise N-limited ecosystems. In nature, nitrogen fixation is likely regulated by iron or phosphate availability, but the extent and interaction of these controls are unclear. From metaproteomics analyses using established protein biomarkers for nutrient stress, we found that iron–phosphate co-stress is the norm rather than the exception for Trichodesmium colonies in the North Atlantic Ocean. Counterintuitively, the nitrogenase enzyme was more abundant under co-stress as opposed to single nutrient stress. This is consistent with the idea that Trichodesmium has a specific physiological state during nutrient co-stress. Organic nitrogen uptake was observed and occurred simultaneously with nitrogen fixation. The quantification of the phosphate ABC transporter PstA combined with a cellular model of nutrient uptake suggested that Trichodesmium is generally confronted by the biophysical limits of membrane space and diffusion rates for iron and phosphate acquisition in the field. Colony formation may benefit nutrient acquisition from particulate and organic sources, alleviating these pressures. The results highlight that to predict the behavior of Trichodesmium , both Fe and P stress must be evaluated simultaneously. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report the distributions of dissolved zinc (dZn) and cobalt (dCo) in sub-tropical and sub-Antarctic waters of the Southeast Atlantic Ocean during austral spring 2010 and summer 2011/12. A strong seasonal signal was observed in sub-tropical surface waters with early spring mixed-layer dZn and dCo concentrations of 3.16 ± 1.35 nM and 39 ± 9 pM, respectively, compared with summer values depleted well below these levels by biological activity. The elevated spring mixed-layer dZn concentrations resulted from an apparent offshore transport of elevated dZn at depths between 20-50 m, derived from lithogenic inputs from the Agulhas Bank. In contrast, open-ocean sub-Antarctic surface waters displayed largely consistent inter-seasonal mixed-layer dZn and dCo concentrations of 0.11 ± 0.08 nM and 11 ± 5 pM, respectively. The vertical distributions of dZn and dCo in the upper water column were similar to that of phosphate (PO43-), with positive linear relationships during each of the seasons and across dynamic biogeochemical regimes, suggesting surface biological drawdown and shallow remineralisation of these metals in this region largely influences their distribution. The ecological stoichiometries for dZn and dCo, calculated from the linear regression with PO43-, suggest a greater overall use of dZn relative to dCo in the upper water column of the Southeast Atlantic with an inter-seasonal Zn:Co ratio ranging between 9 and 29. Sub-tropical surface water Zn:Co ratios were found to decrease between spring and summer indicating a preferential removal of dZn relative to dCo between seasons. In this paper we investigate how the seasonal influences of external input and phytoplankton succession may relate to the distribution of dZn and dCo, and variation in Zn:Co ecological stoichiometry, across two distinct ecological regimes in the Southeast Atlantic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trichodesmium is a globally important marine microbe that provides fixed nitrogen to otherwise N limited ecosystems. In nature, nitrogen fixation is likely regulated by iron or phosphate availability, but the extent and interaction of these controls is unclear. From metaproteomics analyses using established protein biomarkers for iron and phosphate stress, we found that co-stress is the norm rather than the exception for field Trichodesmium colonies. Counter-intuitively, the nitrogenase enzyme was most abundant under co-stress, consistent with the idea that Trichodesmium has a specific physiological state under nutrient co-stress. Organic nitrogen uptake was observed to occur simultaneously with nitrogen fixation. Quantification of the phosphate ABC transporter PstC combined with a cellular model of nutrient uptake suggested that Trichodesmium is confronted by the biophysical limits of membrane space and diffusion rates for iron and phosphate acquisition. Colony formation may benefit nutrient acquisition from particulate and organic nutrient sources, alleviating these pressures. The results indicate that to predict the behavior of Trichodesmium, we must consider multiple nutrients simultaneously across biogeochemical contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]