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It has been suggested from observations that the 11-year solar cycle influences regional tropospheric temperature and circulation relatively symmetrically around the equator. During periods of low (high) solar activity, the mid-latitude storm tracks are weakened (strengthened) and shifted towards the equator (poles). The mechanisms behind solar influence on climate are still debated and evidence from paleoclimate records often lacks precise dating required for assessing the global context. Well-dated proxy-based evidence for solar activity and natural climate change exist for the Northern Hemisphere, suggesting pattern similar to today for periods of grand solar minima. However, well-dated and high-resolution terrestrial climate reconstructions are lacking for the Southern Hemisphere. Here we present a unique precisely dated record for past changes in humidity and windiness from the Crozet archipelago at 46° S in the Southern Indian Ocean, a site strongly influenced by the westerly wind belt. We find an increased influence of the westerly winds shortly after 2800 cal year BP synchronous with a major decline in solar activity and significant changes in Northern Hemisphere mid-latitude wind and humidity records. Supported by a general circulation model run encompassing a grand solar minimum, we infer that periods of low solar activity are connected to an equator-ward shift of the mid-latitude westerly wind belts in both hemispheres comparable to the climate reaction to 11-year solar cycle variability inferred from reanalysis data. We conclude that solar forcing is connected to the bipolar climate response about 2800 years ago through synchronous changes in atmospheric circulation of similar sign in both hemispheres. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study we analyzed sediment trap time series from five tropical sites to assess seasonal variations in concentrations and fluxes of long-chain diols (LCDs) and associated proxies with emphasis on the long-chain diol index (LDI) temperature proxy. For the tropical Atlantic, we observe that generally less than 2 % of LCDs settling from the water column are preserved in the sediment. The Atlantic and Mozambique Channel traps reveal minimal seasonal variations in the LDI, similar to the two other lipid-based temperature proxies TEX 86 and U37K′. In addition, annual mean LDI-derived temperatures are in good agreement with the annual mean satellite-derived sea surface temperatures (SSTs). In contrast, the LDI in the Cariaco Basin shows larger seasonal variation, as do the TEX 86 and U37K′. Here, the LDI underestimates SST during the warmest months, which is possibly due to summer stratification and the habitat depth of the diol producers deepening to around 20–30 m. Surface sediment LDI temperatures in the Atlantic and Mozambique Channel compare well with the average LDI-derived temperatures from the overlying sediment traps, as well as with decadal annual mean SST. Lastly, we observed large seasonal variations in the diol index, as an indicator of upwelling conditions, at three sites: in the eastern Atlantic, potentially linked to Guinea Dome upwelling; in the Cariaco Basin, likely caused by seasonal upwelling; and in the Mozambique Channel, where diol index variations may be driven by upwelling from favorable winds and/or eddy migration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study we have analyzed sediment trap time series from five tropical sites to assess seasonal variations in concentrations and fluxes of long-chain diols (LCDs) and associated proxies with emphasis on the Long chain Diol Index (LDI). For the tropical Atlantic, we observe that generally less than 2 % of LCDs settling from the water column are preserved in the sediment. The Atlantic and Mozambique Channel traps reveal minimal seasonal variations in the LDI, similar to the TEX86 and UK´37. However, annual mean LDI-derived temperatures are in good agreement with the annual mean satellite-derived sea surface temperatures (SSTs). In the Cariaco Basin the LDI shows larger seasonal variation, as do the TEX86 and UK´37. Here, the LDI underestimates SST during the warmest months, which is likely due to summer stratification and the habitat depth of the diol producers deepening to around 20 to 30 m. Surface sediment LDI temperatures in the Atlantic and Mozambique Channel compare well with the average LDI-derived temperatures from the overlying sediment traps, as well as with decadal annual mean SST. Lastly, we observed large seasonal variations in the Diol Index, as indicator of upwelling conditions, at three sites, potentially linked to Guinea Dome upwelling (Eastern Atlantic), seasonal upwelling (Cariaco Basin) and seasonal upwelling and/or eddy migration (Mozambique Channel). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Incubation experiments comprising Saharan dust additions were conducted in the tropical North Atlantic Ocean along an east-west transect at 12°N to study the phytoplankton response to nutrient release in oligotrophic seawater conditions. Experiments were performed at three stations (M1, M3, M4), mimicking wet and dry deposition of low and high amounts of Saharan dust deposition from two different dust sources (paleo-lake and sand dune). Dust particle sizes were adjusted to resemble dust that is naturally deposited over the ocean at the experiment sites. For wet dust deposition, the dust was pre-leached in acidified 'artificial rainwater' (H2SO4) for 16 to 24 hours, mimicking acid cloud processing at different pH values. Experiments were run up to eight days. Daily nutrient measurements of phosphate (PO43-), silicate (SiO44-), nitrate (NO3-) and cell abundances were performed in addition to measurements of concentrations of total dissolved iron (DFe), particulate organic carbon (POC), and dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) at the start and at the end of the experiments. A significant initial increase and subsequent gradual decrease in PO43-, SiO44- and DFe concentrations were observed after wet dust deposition using high amounts of dust previously leached in low pH rain (H2SO4, pH = 2). Remarkably, the experiments showed no nutrient release (PO43-, SiO44- and DFe) from dry-dust addition and the NO3- concentrations remained unaffected in all (dry and wet) experiments. The prokaryotic cyanobacterium Synechococcus spp. was the most prominent picophytoplankton in all mixed layer experiments. After an initial increase in cell abundance, a subsequent decrease (at M1) or a slight increase (at M3) with similar temporal dynamics was observed for dry and wet dust deposition experiments. The POC concentrations increased in all experiments and showed similar high values after both dry and wet dust deposition treatments, even though wet dust deposition is considered to have a higher potential to introduce bioavailable nutrients (i.e. PO43-, SiO44- and DFe) into the otherwise nutrient-starved oligotrophic ocean. Our observations suggest that such nutrients may be more likely to favor the growth of the phytoplankton community when an additional N-source is also available. In addition to acting as a fertilizer, our results from both dry and wet dust deposition experiments suggest that Saharan dust particles might be incorporated into marine snow aggregates leading to similar high POC concentrations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coccolithophores are calcifying phytoplankton and major contributors to both the organic and inorganic oceanic carbon pumps. Their export fluxes, species composition, and seasonal patterns were determined in two sediment trap moorings (M4 at 12°N, 49°W and M2 at 14° N, 37° W) collecting settling particles synchronously from October 2012 to November 2013 at 1200m of water depth in the open equatorial North Atlantic. The two trap locations showed a similar seasonal pattern in total coccolith export fluxes and a predominantly tropical coccolithophore settling assemblage. Species fluxes were dominated throughout the year by lower photic zone (LPZ) taxa (Florisphaera profunda, Gladiolithus flabellatus) but also included upper photic zone (UPZ) taxa (Umbellosphaera spp., Rhabdosphaera spp., Umbilicosphaera spp., Helicosphaera spp.). The LPZ flora was most abundant during fall 2012, whereas the UPZ flora was more important during summer. In spite of these similarities, the western part of the study area produced persistently higher fluxes, averaging 241 ± 107 × 76 ± 107 coccolithsm-2 d-1 at station M4 compared to only 66 ± 107 × 31 ± 107 coccolithsm-2 d-1 at station M2. Higher fluxes at M4 were mainly produced by the LPZ species, favoured by the westward deepening of the thermocline and nutricline. Still, most UPZ species also contributed to higher fluxes, reflecting enhanced productivity in the western equatorial North Atlantic. Such was the case of two marked flux peaks of the more opportunistic species Gephyrocapsa muellerae and Emiliania huxleyi in January and April 2013 at M4, indicating a fast response to the nutrient enrichment of the UPZ, probably by wind-forced mixing. Later, increased fluxes of G. oceanica and E. huxleyi in October-November 2013 coincided with the occurrence of Amazon-River-affected surface waters. Since the spring and fall events of 2013 were also accompanied by two dust flux peaks, we propose a scenario in which atmospheric dust also provided fertilizing nutrients to this area. Enhanced surface buoyancy associated with the river plume indicates that the Amazon acted not only as a nutrient source, but also as a surface density retainer for nutrients supplied from the atmosphere. Nevertheless, lower total coccolith fluxes during these events compared to the maxima recorded in November 2012 and July 2013 indicate that transient productivity by opportunistic species was less important than "background" tropical productivity in the equatorial North Atlantic. This study illustrates how two apparently similar sites in the tropical open ocean actually differ greatly in ecological and oceanographic terms. The results presented here provide valuable insights into the processes governing the ecological dynamics and the downward export of coccolithophores in the tropical North Atlantic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saharan dust has a crucial influence on the earth climate system and its emission, transport and deposition are intimately related to, e.g., wind speed, precipitation, temperature and vegetation cover. The alteration in the physical and chemical properties of Saharan dust due to environmental changes is often used to reconstruct the climate of the past. However, to better interpret possible climate changes the dust source regions need to be known. By analysing the mineralogical composition of transported or deposited dust, potential dust source areas can be inferred. Summer dust transport off northwest Africa occurs in the Saharan air layer (SAL). In continental dust source areas, dust is also transported in the SAL; however, the predominant dust input occurs from nearby dust sources with the low-level trade winds. Hence, the source regions and related mineralogical tracers differ with season and sampling location. To test this, dust collected in traps onshore and in oceanic sediment traps off Mauritania during 2013 to 2015 was analysed. Meteorological data, particle-size distributions, back-trajectory and mineralogical analyses were compared to derive the dust provenance and dispersal. For the onshore dust samples, the source regions varied according to the seasonal changes in trade-wind direction. Gibbsite and dolomite indicated a Western Saharan and local source during summer, while chlorite, serpentine and rutile indicated a source in Mauritania and Mali during winter. In contrast, for the samples that were collected offshore, dust sources varied according to the seasonal change in the dust transporting air layer. In summer, dust was transported in the SAL from Mauritania, Mali and Libya as indicated by ferroglaucophane and zeolite. In winter, dust was transported with the trades from Western Sahara as indicated by, e.g., fluellite. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coccolithophores are calcifying phytoplankton and major contributors to both the organic and inorganic oceanic carbon pumps. Their export fluxes, species composition and seasonal patterns were determined in two sediment trap moorings in the open equatorial North Atlantic (M4 at 12°â€‰N 49°â€‰W and M2 at 14°â€‰N 37°â€‰W), which collected settling particles synchronously in successive 16-day intervals from October 2012 to November 2013, at 1200 m water depth. The two trap locations show a similar seasonal pattern in total coccolith export fluxes and a predominantly tropical coccolithophore settling assemblage throughout the monitored year. Species fluxes were yearlong dominated by lower photic zone (LPZ) taxa (Florisphaera profunda, Gladiolithus flabellatus), but also included upper photic zone (UPZ) taxa (Umbellosphaera spp., Rhabdosphaera spp., Umbilicosphaera spp., Helicosphaera spp.). The LPZ flora was most abundant during fall 2012, whereas the UPZ flora was more important during summer. In spite of these similarities, the western part of the study area produced persistently higher fluxes, averaging 241 × 107 coccoliths m-2 d-1 (117 × 107 to 423 × 107 coccoliths m-2 d-1) at station M4, compared to only 66 × 107 coccoliths m-2 d-1 (25 × 107 to 153 × 107 coccoliths m-2 d-1) at station M2. Higher fluxes at M4 were mainly produced by the LPZ species, although most UPZ species also contributed higher fluxes, reflecting enhanced productivity in the western equatorial North Atlantic. In addition, we found two marked flux peaks of the more opportunistic species Gephyrocapsa muellerae and Emiliania huxleyi indicating a fast response to nutrient-enrichment of the UPZ, probably by wind-forced mixing, whereas increased fluxes of G. oceanica and E. huxleyi in October/November 2013 coincided with the occurrence of Amazon River affected surface waters. Since the spring and fall events of 2013 were also accompanied by two dust flux peaks we propose a scenario where atmospheric dust also provided fertilizing nutrients to this area. Enhanced surface buoyancy associated to the river plume indicates that the Amazon acted not only as a nutrient source, but also as a surface density retainer for nutrients supplied from the atmosphere. Still, lower total coccolith fluxes during these events compared to the maxima recorded in November 2012 and July 2013 indicate that transient productivity by opportunistic species was less important than background tropical productivity in the equatorial North Atlantic. This study illustrates how two seemingly similar sites in an open-ocean tropical setting actually differ greatly in ecological and oceanographic terms, and provides valuable insights into the processes governing the ecological dynamics and the downward export of coccolithophores in the tropical North Atlantic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Massive amounts of Saharan dust are blown from the coast of northern Africa across the Atlantic Ocean towards the Americas each year. This dust has, depending on its chemistry, direct and indirect effects on global climate which include reflection and absorption of solar radiation as well as transport and deposition of nutrients and metals fertilizing both ocean and land. To determine the temporal and spatial variability of Saharan dust transport and deposition and their marine environmental effects across the equatorial North Atlantic Ocean, we have set up a monitoring experiment using deep-ocean sediment traps as well as land-based dust collectors. The sediment traps were deployed at five ocean sites along a transatlantic transect between north-west Africa and the Caribbean along 12° N, in a downwind extension of the land-based dust collectors placed at 19° N on the Mauritanian coast in Iouîk. In this paper, we lay out the setup of the monitoring experiment and present the particle fluxes from sediment trap sampling over 24 continuous and synchronized intervals from October 2012 through to November 2013. We establish the temporal distribution of the particle fluxes deposited in the Atlantic and compare chemical compositions with the land-based dust collectors propagating to the downwind sediment trap sites, and with satellite observations of Saharan dust outbreaks. First-year results show that the total mass fluxes in the ocean are highest at the sampling sites in the east and west, closest to the African continent and the Caribbean, respectively. Element ratios reveal that the lithogenic particles deposited nearest to Africa are most similar in composition to the Saharan dust collected in Iouîk. Downwind increasing Al, Fe and K contents suggest a downwind change in the mineralogical composition of Saharan dust and indicate an increasing contribution of clay minerals towards the west. In the westernmost Atlantic Ocean, admixture of re-suspended clay-sized sediments advected towards the deep sediment trap cannot be excluded. Seasonality is most prominent near both continents but generally weak, with mass fluxes dominated by calcium carbonate and clear seasonal maxima of biogenic silica towards the west. The monitoring experiment is now extended, with autonomous dust sampling buoys for better quantification of Saharan dust transport and deposition from source to sink and their impact on fertilization and carbon export to the deep ocean. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saharan dust has a crucial influence on the earth climate system and its emission, transport, and deposition are intimately related to environmental parameters. The alteration in the physical and chemical properties of Saharan dust due to changes in environmental parameters is often used to reconstruct the climate of the past. However, to better interpret possible climate changes the dust source regions need to be known. By analysing the mineralogical composition of transported or deposited dust, potential dust source areas can be inferred. Summer dust transport offshore Northwest Africa occurs in the Saharan air layer (SAL). In contrast, dust transport in continental dust source areas occurs predominantly with the trade winds. Hence, the source regions and related mineralogical tracers differ with season and sampling location. To test this, dust collected in traps onshore and in oceanic sediment traps offshore Mauritania during 2013 to 2015 was analysed. Meteorological data, particle-size distributions, back-trajectory and mineralogical analyses were compared to derive the dust provenance and dispersal. For the onshore dust samples, the source regions varied according to the seasonal changes in trade-wind direction. Gibbsite and dolomite indicated a Western Saharan and local source during summer, while chlorite, serpentine and rutile indicated a source in Mauritania and Mali during winter. In contrast, for the samples that were collected offshore, dust sources varied according to the seasonal change in the dust transporting air layer. In summer, dust was transported in the SAL from Mauritania, Mali and Libya as indicated by ferryglaucophane and zeolite. In winter, dust was transported with the Trades from the Western Sahara as indicated by e.g. sepiolite and fluellite. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Massive amounts of Saharan dust are blown from the African coast across the Atlantic Ocean towards the Americas each year. This dust has, depending on its chemistry, direct and indirect effects on global climate including reflection and absorption of solar radiation as well as transport and deposition of nutrients and metals fertilizing both ocean and land. To determine the temporal and spatial variability of Saharan dust transport and deposition and their marine environmental effects across the equatorial North Atlantic Ocean, we have set up a monitoring experiment using deep-ocean sediment traps as well as land-based dust collectors. The sediment traps were deployed at five ocean sites along a transatlantic transect between northwest Africa and the Caribbean along 12â?° N, in a down-wind extension of the land-based dust collectors placed at 19â?° N on the Mauritanian coast in Iwik. In this paper, we lay out the setup of the monitoring experiment and present the particle fluxes from sediment trap sampling over 24 continuous and synchronised intervals from October 2012 through to November 2013. We establish the temporal distribution of the particle fluxes deposited in the Atlantic and compare chemical compositions with the land-based dust collectors propagating to the down-wind sediment trap sites, and with satellite observations of Saharan dust outbreaks. First-year results show that the total mass fluxes in the ocean are highest at the sampling sites in the east and west, closest to the African continent and the Caribbean, respectively. Element ratios reveal that the lithogenic particles deposited nearest to Africa are most similar in composition to the Saharan dust collected in Iwik. Down-wind increasing Al, Fe and K contents suggest a downwind change in the mineralogical composition of Saharan dust and indicate an increasing contribution of clay minerals towards the west. In the westernmost Atlantic, admixture of re-suspended clay-sized sediments advected towards the deep sediment trap cannot be excluded. Seasonality is most prominent near both continents but generally weak, with mass fluxes dominated by calcium carbonate and clear seasonal maxima of biogenic silica towards the west. The monitoring experiment is now extended with autonomous dust sampling buoys for better quantification Saharan dust transport and deposition from source to sink and its impact on fertilization and carbon export to the deep ocean. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mineral dust has a large impact on regional and global climate, depending on its particle size. Especially in the Atlantic Ocean downwind of the Sahara, the largest dust source on earth, the effects can be substantial but are poorly understood. This study focuses on seasonal and spatial variations in particle size of Saharan dust deposition across the Atlantic Ocean, using an array of submarine sediment traps moored along a transect at 12 N. We show that the particle size decreases downwind with increased distance from the Saharan source, due to higher gravitational settling velocities of coarse particles in the atmosphere. Modal grain sizes vary between 4 and 32 µm throughout the different seasons and at five locations along the transect. This is much coarser than previously suggested and incorporated into climate models. In addition, seasonal changes are prominent, with coarser dust in summer and finer dust in winter and spring. Such seasonal changes are caused by transport at higher altitudes and at greater wind velocities during summer than in winter. Also, the latitudinal migration of the dust cloud, associated with the Intertropical Convergence Zone, causes seasonal differences in deposition as the summer dust cloud is located more to the north and more directly above the sampled transect. Furthermore, increased precipitation and more frequent dust storms in summer coincide with coarser dust deposition. Our findings contribute to understanding Saharan dust transport and deposition relevant for the interpretation of sedimentary records for climate reconstructions, as well as for global and regional models for improved prediction of future climate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mineral dust has a large impact on regional and global climate, depending on its particle size. Especially in the Atlantic Ocean downwind of the Sahara, the largest dust source on earth, the effects can be substantial but are poorly understood. This study focuses on seasonal and spatial variations in particle size of Saharan dust deposition across the Atlantic Ocean, using an array of submarine sediment traps moored along a transect at 12˚ N. We show that the particle size decreases downwind with increased distance from the Saharan source, due to higher gravitational settling velocities of coarse particles in the atmosphere. Modal grain sizes vary between 4 and 33 μm throughout the different seasons and at five locations along the transect. This is much coarser than previously suggested and incorporated into climate models. In addition, seasonal changes are prominent, with coarser dust in summer, and finer dust in winter and spring. Such seasonal changes are caused by transport at higher altitudes and at greater wind velocities during summer than in winter. Also the latitudinal migration of the dust cloud, associated with the Intertropical Convergence Zone, causes seasonal differences in deposition as the summer dust cloud is located more to the north, and more directly above the sampled transect. Furthermore, increased precipitation and more frequent dust storms in summer coincide with coarser dust deposition. Our findings contribute to understanding Saharan dust transport and deposition relevant for the interpretation of sedimentary records for climate reconstructions, as well as for global and regional models for improved prediction of future climate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mineral dust has a large impact on regional and global climate, depending on its particle size. Especially in the Atlantic Ocean downwind of the Sahara, the largest dust source on earth, the effects can be substantial but are poorly understood. This study focuses on seasonal and spatial variations in particle size of Saharan dust deposition across the Atlantic Ocean, using an array of submarine sediment traps moored along a transect at 12˚ N. We show that the particle size decreases downwind with increased distance from the Saharan source, due to higher gravitational settling velocities of coarse particles in the atmosphere. Modal grain sizes vary between 4 and 33 μm throughout the different seasons and at five locations along the transect. This is much coarser than previously suggested and incorporated into climate models. In addition, seasonal changes are prominent, with coarser dust in summer, and finer dust in winter and spring. Such seasonal changes are caused by transport at higher altitudes and at greater wind velocities during summer than in winter. Also the latitudinal migration of the dust cloud, associated with the Intertropical Convergence Zone, causes seasonal differences in deposition as the summer dust cloud is located more to the north, and more directly above the sampled transect. Furthermore, increased precipitation and more frequent dust storms in summer coincide with coarser dust deposition. Our findings contribute to understanding Saharan dust transport and deposition relevant for the interpretation of sedimentary records for climate reconstructions, as well as for global and regional models for improved prediction of future climate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]