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Partial anomalous pulmonary venous return is a rare congenital heart defect that can escape detection until adulthood and can be misdiagnosed as pulmonary hypertension and managed with vasodilators before the anomaly is identified. This report describes the cases of 3 patients with pulmonary hypertension whose hemodynamics and symptoms improved after repair of anomalous veins. Anomalous pulmonary veins are difficult to identify on a transthoracic echocardiogram, so a high index of suspicion and early use of additional imaging modalities are important to avoid a delayed diagnosis and progression to irreversible disease., (Copyright © 2022 The Society of Thoracic Surgeons. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.) more...

Background: Congenitally corrected transposition of the great arteries (ccTGA) has many management strategies, with the emergence of anatomic repair increasing the available surgical options. Contemporary surgical practices have not been described in multicenter analyses. This study describes the distribution of heart surgery in patients with ccTGA and defines contemporary outcomes in a large multicenter cohort., Methods: Index cardiovascular operations in patients with primary or fundamental diagnosis of ccTGA were identified in The Society of Thoracic Surgeons Congenital Heart Surgery Database from 2010 to 2019. Operations of interest were combined into mutually exclusive groups designating overall ccTGA management strategies. Outcomes were defined with standard Society of Thoracic Surgeons Congenital Heart Surgery Database definitions. Pearson χ 2 and Kruskal-Wallis tests were used for statistical comparisons., Results: One hundred one centers performed 985 index operations, with anatomic repair the most common approach. Twenty-six centers performed more than 10 operations. Atrial switch plus Rastelli operations had the highest rate of operative mortality (8.4%) and major complications (38.2%). Heart transplant operations had the longest postoperative length of stay among survivors (18 days [interquartile range, 13.5-26])., Conclusions: Patients with ccTGA remain a challenging cohort, with significant diversity in the operations used and a substantial burden of operative mortality and morbidity., (Copyright © 2022 The Society of Thoracic Surgeons. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.) more...

We report the case of an 18-year-old male patient with a history of bicuspid aortic valve with severe aortic insufficiency who had undergone a Ross procedure 1 year prior but subsequently developed stenosis of the pulmonary homograft necessitating conduit replacement. His postoperative course was complicated by acute respiratory distress syndrome. Bronchoscopy revealed significant mucus plugging without identification of contributing pathogen. Further evaluation revealed a history of electronic cigarette use not identified preoperatively and thought to be largely contributory to his postoperative complications. This case highlights the importance of screening preoperatively for electronic cigarette use and counseling on cessation before surgical procedures., (Copyright © 2021 The Society of Thoracic Surgeons. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.) more...

Background: Aortic arch reobstruction is a common complication after aortic repair, with rates of reintervention varying from 0% to 40%, depending on the disease and the institution. This study aimed to determine the reintervention rate in children undergoing aortic arch repair using a tailored autologous pericardial patch at our center (Monroe Carell, Jr Children's Hospital at Vanderbilt, Nashville, TN)., Methods: This retrospective study examined all patients operated on by a single surgeon for aortic arch reconstruction through sternotomy, from 2011 to 2018, with 1 year of follow-up. Our data set was analyzed for normality by using the Shapiro-Wilk test, and nonparametric statistical methods were used. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis was performed, IBM SPSS software version 23 was used to perform all statistical analysis., Results: A total of 171 patients met inclusion criteria. Twenty-three (13.5%) patients underwent aortic arch reinterventions during the study period, 17 (9.9%) catheter based and 3 (1.8%) surgical. Three patients (1.8%) had both. Freedom from reintervention at 1-year follow-up for the univentricular and biventricular patients was 82.1% and 89.4% (P = .174), respectively. To assess the growth of the aortic arch over time, cardiac catheterization measurements were used to index different parts of the aortic arch against the descending aorta. Ascending-to-descending aortic arch measurements revealed that the pre-Glenn median was 2.0 (interquartile range, 1.8 to 2.2), whereas the pre-Fontan median was 2.5 (interquartile range, 2.2 to 2.7) (P < .05)., Conclusions: There was no significant difference in reintervention rates between biventricular and univentricular arches, and catheterization measurements showed significant growth of the arch over time. The use of a tailored autologous pericardial patch for aortic arch repair is comparable to other reported methods of arch repair., (Copyright © 2021 The Society of Thoracic Surgeons. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.) more...

Background: Endomyocardial biopsy (EMB) is the current standard for rejection surveillance in heart transplant recipients. The quantification of donor-specific cell-free DNA (cfDNA) may be an appropriate biomarker for non-invasive rejection surveillance. A multicenter prospective blinded study (DNA-Based Transplant Rejection Test, DTRT) investigated the value of donor fraction (DF), defined as the ratio of cfDNA specific to the transplanted organ to the total amount of cfDNA present in a blood sample., Methods: A total of 241 heart transplant patients were recruited from 7 centers. Age at transplant ranged from 8 days to 73 years, with 146 subjects <18 years and 95 ≥18 years. All the patients were followed for at least 1 year, with blood samples drawn at routine and for-cause biopsies. A total of 624 biopsy-paired samples were included for analysis through a commercially available cfDNA assay (myTAI HEART , TAI Diagnostics Inc.). A blinded analysis of repeated measures compared the outcomes using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves. All primary clinical end-points were monitored at 100%. All analysis and conclusions were reviewed by both an independent external oversight committee and the National Institutes of Health-mandated DTRT steering committee., Results: DF in acute cellular rejection (ACR) 1R/2R (n = 15) was higher than ACR 0R (n = 42) (p = 0.02); DF in antibody-mediated rejection pAMR1 (n = 8) and pAMR2 (n = 12) (p = 0.05) were higher than pAMR0 (n = 466) (p = 0.04 and p = 0.05 respectively). An optimal DF threshold was determined by the use of an ROC analysis, which ruled out the presence of either ACR or antibody-mediated rejection., Conclusions: The cell-free DNA DF holds promise as a non-invasive diagnostic test to rule out acute rejection in both adult and pediatric heart transplant populations., (Copyright © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.) more...

As a result of improvements in care for patients with congenital heart disease (CHD), >90% of children born with CHD are expected to survive to adulthood. For those adults, heart failure (HF) is the leading cause of death. Advances in recognition of, and treatments for, these patients continue to improve. Specifically, adults with CHD are candidates for both heart transplantation and mechanical circulatory support. However, challenges remain that require investigation to improve outcomes., (Copyright © 2020 American College of Cardiology Foundation. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.) more...

Background: Turner syndrome (TS) is a genetic syndrome characterized by monosomy X (45,XO) in phenotypic females and is commonly associated with congenital heart disease. We sought to describe the distribution, mortality, and morbidity of congenital heart surgery in TS and compare outcomes to individuals without genetic syndromes., Methods: The Society of Thoracic Surgeons Congenital Heart Surgery Database was used to evaluate index cardiovascular operations performed from 2000 to 2017 in pediatric patients (aged 0-18 years) with and without TS. Analyses were stratified by the most common operations, including coarctation repair, aortic arch repair, partial anomalous pulmonary venous return repair, Norwood, superior cavopulmonary anastomosis (Glenn), and Fontan., Results: Included were 780 operations in TS and 62,659 operations in controls. The most common TS operations were coarctation repair in 274 (35%), aortic arch repair in 116 (15%), and Norwood in 59 (8%). Compared with controls, TS patients had lower weight-for-age Z-scores across all operations (P < .01 for all); however, operative mortality rates did not differ significantly. The chylothorax rate was higher in TS after coarctation repair (8.8% vs 2.8%, P < .001) and Norwood (22% vs 8.1%, P < .001). The median (interquartile range) postoperative length of stay was longer in TS for coarctation repair (6.5 [5.0-15.5] days vs 5.0 [4.0-9.0] days, P < .001), aortic arch repair (15.0 [8.0-27.5] days vs 11.0 [7.0-21.0] days, P = .004), and Glenn (9.0 [6.0-16.0] days vs 6.0 [5.0-11.0] days, P = .013)., Conclusions: Turner syndrome patients most commonly underwent operations for left-sided obstructive lesions. Despite increased morbidity for select operations, TS was not associated with increased operative mortality., (Copyright © 2019 The Society of Thoracic Surgeons. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.) more...

Background: The number of adult congenital heart disease (ACHD) patients requiring heart transplantation (HT) continues to grow, and if they survive the first year after transplant, their long-term survival is at least equivalent to non-ACHD patients. The 1-year survival of ACHD patients with HT remains lower than non-ACHD patients. We evaluated the affect of transplant center volume on 1-year survival of ACHD patients. We analyzed United Network of Organ Sharing patients (age ≥18 years) who underwent their first orthotopic HT between January 1, 2000, and December 31, 2015, to assess the association between transplant center volume and 1-year survival of ACHD patients., Results: We identified 827 ACHD patients at 113 centers who underwent HT during the study period. The average age of the recipients and donors was 36 ± 13 years (60% men and 84% Caucasian) and 28 ± 11 (63% men and 66% Caucasian), respectively. Of the ACHD patients undergoing HT, 27% (n = 60) were done at low-volume centers, 30% (n = 10) were reported at high-volume centers, and the remaining (n = 43) were at medium-volume centers. A total of 96 patients died within 30 days, including 37 (16.7%) at low-volume, 37 (10.2%) at medium-volume, and 22 (9.0%) at high-volume centers (p = 0.019). The average unadjusted Kaplan-Meier 30-day survival at low-volume centers was 83% ± 2%, which was significantly lower than medium-volume (90% ± 1%) and high-volume (91% ± 2%) centers (log-rank p < 0.05). Within 1 year, 154 patients had died, including 56 (36.4%) at low-volume, 60 (38.9%) at medium-volume, and 38 (24.7%) at high-volume centers (p = 0.011). Average unadjusted Kaplan-Meier 1-year survival at low-volume centers was 75% ± 3%, which was significantly lower than medium-volume (83% ± 2%) and high-volume (84% ± 2%) centers (log-rank p < 0.05)., Conclusions: The 30-day and 1-year survival of ACHD patients undergoing HT is partly influenced by overall transplant center volume and, potentially, volume of ACHD HTs, with low-volume centers performing poorly relative to medium-volume and high-volume centers. The role of peri-operative care and multidisciplinary management in improving survival at low-volume centers required further investigations., (Copyright © 2018 International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.) more...

Background: Transplant-free survival for single right ventricle (RV) lesions remains less than 70% at 3 years. Arrhythmia burden, influence of shunt type at Norwood procedure (RV-to-pulmonary artery shunt [RVPAS] versus Blalock-Taussig shunt [BTS]), and implications for mortality risk are not well defined., Methods: The authors performed a single-center retrospective analysis of patients with single RV lesions enrolled in a prospective study of arrhythmias after congenital heart surgery., Results: Fifty-eight patients received a RVPAS and 62 received a BTS, with a median follow-up of 773 days. Overall arrhythmia incidence was 78%, two-thirds of which prompted intervention. Among all types of arrhythmias, only ventricular arrhythmias (VAs) differed by shunt type, which were more common in patients receiving an RVPAS (29% RVPAS versus 14% BTS; p = 0.049). The majority of VAs were transient (69% less than 1 minute), and typically occurred early post-Norwood procedure (median 12 days). No additional variables were associated with development of VAs. Shunt type did not influence transplant-free survival. Within the entire cohort, there was a trend toward increased mortality with prior history of VA (odds ratio, 2.90; 95% confidence interval, 0.99 to 8.90; p = 0.052). For interstage survivors to Glenn palliation, any VA associated with a 14-fold increased risk of death or transplant (hazard ratio, 14.00; 95% confidence interval, 3.66 to 53.40; p < .001). No other tachyarrhythmia or bradyarrhythmia was associated with mortality., Conclusions: In this cohort with single RV lesions and prospective rhythm surveillance, patients receiving an RVPAS at Norwood surgery had an increased incidence of VAs compared with patients with a BTS. VAs correlated with late mortality in patients who survived the interstage period., (Copyright © 2018 The Society of Thoracic Surgeons. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.) more...

Background: Neonatal aortic arch reconstruction, typically performed with deep hypothermia and selective cerebral perfusion, leaves splanchnic organ protection dependent on hypothermia alone. A simplified method of direct in-field descending aortic perfusion during neonatal arch reconstruction permits the avoidance of deep hypothermia. We hypothesize that direct splanchnic perfusion at mild hypothermia provides improved or equivalent safety compared with deep hypothermia and may contribute to postoperative extracardiac organ recovery., Methods: Included were 138 biventricular patients aged younger than 90 days undergoing aortic arch reconstruction with cardiopulmonary bypass. Patients were grouped according to perfusion method A (selective cerebral perfusion with deep hyperthermia at 18° to 20°C) or method B (selective cerebral perfusion and splanchnic perfusion at 30° to 32°C). Patient characteristics and perioperative clinical and serologic data were analyzed. Significance was assigned for p of less than 0.05., Results: Of the 138 survivors, 63 underwent method A and 75 underwent method B. The median age at operation was 8.5 days (range, 6 to 15 days), and median weight was 3.2 kg (range, 2.8 to 3.73 kg), with no significant differences between groups. Cardiopulmonary bypass times were comparable between the two perfusion methods (p = 0.255) as were the ascending aortic cross-clamp times (p = 0.737). The postoperative glomerular filtration rate was significantly different between our groups (p = 0.028 to 0.044), with method B achieving a higher glomerular filtration rate. No significant differences were seen in ventilator time, postoperative length of stay, fractional increase of postoperative serum creatinine over preoperative serum creatinine, and postoperative lactate., Conclusions: A simplified method of direct splanchnic perfusion during neonatal aortic arch reconstruction avoids the use of deep hypothermia and provides renal protection at least as effective as deep hypothermia., (Copyright © 2017 The Society of Thoracic Surgeons. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.) more...

We report a novel method of constructing an extracardiac bidirectional inferior cavopulmonary anastomosis. Our patient was a 4-month-old girl with complex single-ventricle anatomy and a small-caliber superior vena cava. A direct anastomosis from the inferior vena cava to the main pulmonary artery was constructed by using all autologous tissue. The resulting pathway remained patent and exhibited growth with age. Furthermore, a pulmonary arteriovenous malformation did not develop. This case demonstrates how a bidirectional inferior cavopulmonary anastomosis is feasible in the human and can provide similar hemodynamic results as the bidirectional superior cavopulmonary anastomosis., (Copyright © 2017 The Society of Thoracic Surgeons. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.) more...

Background: The angiotensin-converting enzyme insertion/deletion (ACE I/D) polymorphism is described in association with numerous phenotypes, including arrhythmias, and may provide predictive value among pediatric patients undergoing congenital heart surgery., Objective: The purpose of this study was to examine the role of a common polymorphism on postoperative tachyarrhythmias in a large cohort of pediatric patients undergoing congenital heart surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB)., Methods: Subjects undergoing congenital heart surgery with CPB at our institution were consecutively enrolled from September 2007 to December 2012. In addition to DNA, perioperative clinical data were obtained from subjects., Results: Postoperative tachyarrhythmias were documented in 45% of 886 enrollees and were associated with prolonged mechanical ventilation (P <.001) and intensive care unit length of stay (P <.001). ACE I/D was in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (19% I/I, 49% I/D, 32% D/D). I/D or D/D genotypes were independently associated with a 60% increase in odds of new tachyarrhythmia (odds ratio [OR] 1.6, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.1-2.3, P = .02). Preoperative ACE inhibitor administration was independently associated with a 47% reduction in odds of postoperative tachyarrhythmia in the entire cohort (OR 0.53, 95% CI 0.32-0.88, P = .01), driven by a 5-fold reduction in tachyarrhythmias among I/I genotype patients (OR 0.19, 95% CI 0.04-0.88, P = .02)., Conclusion: The risk of tachyarrhythmias after congenital heart surgery is independently affected by the ACE I/D polymorphism. Preoperative ACE inhibition is associated with a lower risk of postoperative tachyarrhythmias, an antiarrhythmic effect that appears genotype dependent. An understanding of genotype variation may play an important role in the perioperative management of congenital heart surgery., (Copyright © 2014 Heart Rhythm Society. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.) more...

We report a 4-month-old girl who presented with poor ventricular function and was found to have occlusion of the left main coronary artery os by a tethered aortic cusp. The patient underwent surgical delamination of the aortic valve leaflet, revealing a normal left coronary os. After operative repair, her left ventricular function improved significantly. This diagnosis should be included in the differential in all children presenting with cardiac dysfunction., (Copyright © 2014 The Society of Thoracic Surgeons. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.) more...

We describe a new method of selective regional perfusion during arch reconstruction in the Norwood procedure. The strategy involves direct sequential perfusion of the coronary and splanchnic circulations coupled with continuous cerebral perfusion, while repairing the arch in a distal to proximal fashion. This technique provides the potential for decreased coronary and splanchnic ischemic times, which in combination with continuous selective cerebral perfusion may further allow for warmer operating temperatures and decreased overall bypass times., (Copyright © 2011 The Society of Thoracic Surgeons. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.) more...

Distortion of septal and atrial anatomy in Ebstein's anomaly places the atrioventricular node and His bundle at risk for injury at operation. We present a novel technique for creating a robust neo-annulus, remote from conduction tissue, adding to the armamentarium of techniques available for the reconstruction or replacement of the tricuspid valve. Three cases are described. All the patients were in sinus rhythm, with competent native or bioprosthetic valves, at short-term follow-up. more...

Background: Late left pulmonary artery (LPA) stenosis occurs commonly after the Norwood procedure, and complicates subsequent stages. Compression by the neoaorta and ductal stump may favor flow into the right pulmonary artery, resulting in LPA hypoplasia. We hypothesize that an early compromise of LPA flow contributes to late LPA stenosis, and have modified our shunt to compensate., Methods: We reviewed 34 consecutive neonates undergoing the Norwood procedure between 1999 and 2002, and morphometric data from angiograms obtained before the bidirectional cavopulmonary anastomosis (BDCPA). The Norwood technique included an autologous arch reconstruction with or without augmentation, and a polytetrafluoroethylene Blalock-Taussig shunt (BTS). Starting February 2001, the distal shunt was modified from an end-to-side construction to an oblique anastomosis directed into the retroaortic LPA., Results: Norwood survival was 82%. LPA stenosis required plasty in 10 of 13 (77%) premodification survivors, and in 2 of 9 (22%) postmodification (p = 0.027). Bypass time was 151 +/- 65 minutes with LPA plasty versus 95 +/- 50 minutes without. Mortality (15% vs 0%), hospital stay (25 +/- 35 vs 9 +/- 6 days), and incidence of subsequent interventions were correspondingly higher with LPA stenosis. Ten of 13 patients (77%) with a BTS insertion point outside the central region of the pulmonary artery required LPA plasty, versus 2 of 9 (22%) with an insertion nearer to the center (p = 0.027)., Conclusions: An oblique distal BTS anastomosis directed leftward onto the retroaortic pulmonary artery at the time of the Norwood procedure may prevent late LPA stenosis and its attendant morbidity. more...

Background: In recent years, minimal access cardiac operations have increased in application in both the adult and pediatric population. As our experience has grown with these approaches to atrial septal defect closure, we have expanded the same approach to the repair of more complex congenital heart disease., Methods: At the Children's Hospital in Boston, from August 1996 to November 1999, a minimal sternotomy approach was used to surgically correct 104 children with congenital heart defects other than atrial septal defect. The approach, in most patients, consisted of a skin incision based over the xiphisternum, 3.5 to 5 cm in length, with division of the xiphoid only and elevation of the sternum by fixed retractor. All patients underwent cannulation for cardiopulmonary bypass through the great vessels in the chest using this same incision. The lesions corrected included ventricular septal defect in 41 patients, tetralogy of Fallot in 27, common atrioventricular canal in 15, mitral valve operation in 3.5, and other defects in 18 patients. There were 53 male and 51 female patients. Mean age at operation was 1.4 years (range, 2 weeks to 11 years)., Results: There were no deaths. The mean cardiopulmonary bypass time was 71 minutes (standard deviation, 19 minutes), mean cross-clamp times 40.8 minutes (standard deviation, 13 minutes), and length of stay 4.5 days (standard deviation, 1.9 days). Complications included transient atrioventricular block in 2 patients, pleural effusion requiring drainage in 4, and pericardial effusion in 3 patients. When compared to similar lesions repaired using a full sternotomy approach there was no difference in operating times and length of stay tended to be shorter in the minimal sternotomy group., Conclusions: A minimal sternotomy approach can be used to repair congenital cardiac lesions other than atrial septal defects. It gives good exposure, particularly for transatrial repairs, does not prolong ischemic times, and may lead to shorter hospital stay. more...

Background: From May 1996 to August 1998 a minimal access approach was used for 135 of 200 consecutive surgical atrial septal defects closures in children through young adults ranging in age from 6 months to 25 years (median 5 years)., Methods: A 3.5- to 5-cm midline incision was centered over the xiphoid with division of the xiphoid alone (transxiphoid) or of the lower sternum (ministernotomy); both groups underwent bicaval venous cannulation through the incision. Cardioplegia and aortic cross-clamping were administered through the incision. Cephalad retraction of the sternum with a fixed-arm retractor aided exposure., Results: There have been no early or late deaths and no bleeding or wound complications. No procedure required conversion to a full sternotomy, and no cannulation attempt was abandoned for an alternate site. Cross-clamp and cardiopulmonary bypass times were equivalent to those in the full sternotomy group. The mean length of hospital stay in the ministernotomy group was 2.7 days., Conclusions: The closure of atrial septal defects can be performed through a transxiphoid or ministernotomy approach, conferring a satisfactory cosmetic result without compromising the safety or accuracy of the repair. more...

Background: Minimal access incisions for pediatric cardiac surgery have been reported to hasten postoperative recovery. This prospective study compared recovery after a minimum versus full-length sternotomy for repair of atrial septal defects in children., Methods: We studied 35 children undergoing atrial septal defect repair using a full-length sternotomy (n = 18) or ministernotomy (n = 17) according to the surgeon's preference. All children were managed according to an established clinical practice guideline. Intraoperative comparisons included patient demographics, bypass and cross-clamp times, and, as a measure of stress response, epinephrine, norepinephrine, and lactate levels at six time intervals throughout the surgical procedure. Postoperative comparisons included pain scores at 6, 12, and 24 hours, frequency of emesis, analgesic requirements, respiratory rate and gas exchange, and length of intensive care unit and total hospital stay. Nurse and parent assessment scores of overall recovery were constructed using visual analog and Likert scales., Results: No significant differences between mini- versus full-length sternotomy were detected for the measured outcome variables. No adverse outcomes were detected., Conclusions: In this prospective study, a ministernotomy did not enhance postoperative recovery, and the primary advantage appears to be an improved cosmetic result. more...

Background: Peripheral arterial and venous cannulation for cardiopulmonary bypass is used increasingly for patients undergoing minimally invasive cardiac operations, complex reoperations, or repair of aortic dissection or aneurysm, and for patients with extensive arteriosclerotic aortic disease in whom aortic cannulation is a prohibitive embolic risk. The common femoral artery and vein are most commonly used for peripheral cannulation, but these sites may be predisposed to complications, primarily because the femoral vessels are commonly involved with arteriosclerotic disease. We have recently begun to use the axillary artery and axillary vein as alternative cannulation sites, achieving full cardiopulmonary bypass, providing antegrade aortic flow, and avoiding many of the complications associated with other sites., Methods: Seven patients with peripheral vascular or aortic disease, or both, prohibiting safe aortic or femoral cannulation underwent cardiopulmonary bypass through axillary artery and axillary vein cannulation, approached through a small single subclavicular incision., Results: All patients were successfully cannulated and axilloaxillary cardiopulmonary bypass was possible without the need for additional cannulas. All axillary vessels were closed primarily without complication., Conclusion: For an expanding population of patients with peripheral vascular and aortic disease, axilloaxillary bypass is a safe and practical alternative to aortic or femoral cannulation. more...

Compartment syndrome of the lower leg is an occasional complication of prolonged ischemia and reperfusion. Compartment syndrome of the thigh is a less well-recognized complication. We present 2 patients with compartment syndrome of the ipsilateral thigh after femoral arterial and venous cannulation for cardiopulmonary bypass. Early diagnosis and urgent decompressive fasciotomy may limit the extent of local tissue damage and subsequent myonephropathic syndrome. more...