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Lotus seed starch holds vast potential for utilization across various industries, with its content and structure directly influencing the commercial value of lotus seeds. However, there has been limited information available on the molecular mechanisms underlying lotus seed starch biosynthesis. In this study, three starch branching enzyme homologs were identified in the lotus genome, designated as NnSBE1 to NnSBE3, which possess conserved CBM_48 and α_Aamy domains. Among them, NnSBE1 exhibited predominant expression, with abundant transcript levels observed in lotus seeds and flower-related organs. Expression of NnSBE1 remained consistently up-regulated in lotus cotyledons from 6 to 21 days after pollination. Additionally, a C2H2-type finger protein encoding gene, NnLOL1, co-expressed with NnSBE1 in lotus cotyledons. As a seed-predominantly expressed transcription factor, NnLOL1 was confirmed to activate NnSBE1 expression. Transient overexpression of NnSBE1 in lotus cotyledons resulted in a significant increase in both amylopectin and total starch content compared to the control. Furthermore, multiple variation sites within the NnSBE1 gene gave rise to diverse haplotypes between seed-lotus and other lotus varieties. These findings contribute to our understanding of the regulation mechanisms involved in lotus seed starch biosynthesis, offering valuable theoretical insights for the genetic improvement of lotus seed starch by molecular breeding strategies., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Pea seeds (Pisum sativum L.) were germinated by soaking in H2O or 5 mM CdCl2 during a 5-day period. Enzyme activities involved in respiratory metabolism were studied in cotyledons. Mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase and NADH- and succinate-cytochrome c reductase activities were inhibited by cadmium treatment. The effects of Cd were performed in vivo and in vitro allowing to distinguish between the direct inhibition of the enzyme activities and the influence on the same enzymes into the cell environment. However, Cd exposure stimulated an enzyme activity of fermentation and inhibited the capacity of the enzyme inactivator (alcohol dehydrogenase inactivator). Moreover, the enzyme activities of NAD(P)H-recycling dehydrogenases via secondary pentose phosphate pathway, glucose-6-phosphate- and 6-phosphogluconate-dehydrogenases, were enhanced in Cd-stressed seeds. These disturbances suggest that cadmium may inflict a serious injury on renewal of respiration. The findings will help clarify the overall mechanisms that underlie cadmium-mediated toxicity in germinating seeds., (Copyright (c) 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Type-I ribosome-inactivating protein (RIP), which is found in many plants, catalyzes depurination of a specific adenine in the sarcin/ricin domain (SRD) of the large rRNA causing loss of ribosomal activity. Previously, we found a RNA apurinic site-specific lyase (RALyase) that catalytically cleaved the phosphodiester bond at the RIP-dependent depurination site by beta-elimination reaction. Here we show that both the RIP activity and RIP-RALyase-mediated cleavage of SRD in the cytoplasmic ribosome were induced at the late stage of senescence of wheat coleoptiles. Following this process, tissue death was observed. Furthermore, transgenic tobacco plants expressing glucocorticoid-induced RIP developed senescence-like phenotype. Our results suggest that ribosome inactivation due to the cleavage of SRD by the inducible RIP and constitutively expressed RALyase may be a unique plant system that mediates programmed cell death at the late senescent stage.

A major goal currently in Arabidopsis research is determination of the (biochemical) function of each of its approximately 27,000 genes. To date, however, 12% of its genes actually have known biochemical roles. In this study, we considered it instructive to identify the gene expression patterns of nine (so-called AtCAD1-9) of 17 genes originally annotated by The Arabidopsis Information Resource (TAIR) as cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase (CAD, EC 1.1.1.195) homologues [see Costa, M.A., Collins, R.E., Anterola, A.M., Cochrane, F.C., Davin, L.B., Lewis N.G., 2003. An in silico assessment of gene function and organization of the phenylpropanoid pathway metabolic networks in Arabidopsis thaliana and limitations thereof. Phytochemistry 64, 1097-1112.]. In agreement with our biochemical studies in vitro [Kim, S.-J., Kim, M.-R., Bedgar, D.L., Moinuddin, S.G.A., Cardenas, C.L., Davin, L.B., Kang, C.-H., Lewis, N.G., 2004. Functional reclassification of the putative cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase multigene family in Arabidopsis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101, 1455-1460.], and analysis of a double mutant [Sibout, R., Eudes, A., Mouille, G., Pollet, B., Lapierre, C., Jouanin, L., Séguin A., 2005. Cinnamyl Alcohol Dehydrogenase-C and -D are the primary genes involved in lignin biosynthesis in the floral stem of Arabidopsis. Plant Cell 17, 2059-2076.], both AtCAD5 (At4g34230) and AtCAD4 (At3g19450) were found to have expression patterns consistent with development/formation of different forms of the lignified vascular apparatus, e.g. lignifying stem tissues, bases of trichomes, hydathodes, abscission zones of siliques, etc. Expression was also observed in various non-lignifying zones (e.g. root caps) indicative of, perhaps, a role in plant defense. In addition, expression patterns of the four CAD-like homologues were investigated, i.e. AtCAD2 (At2g21730), AtCAD3 (At2g21890), AtCAD7 (At4g37980) and AtCAD8 (At4g37990), each of which previously had been demonstrated to have low CAD enzymatic activity in vitro (relative to AtCAD4/5) [Kim, S.-J., Kim, M.-R., Bedgar, D.L., Moinuddin, S.G.A., Cardenas, C.L., Davin, L.B., Kang, C.-H., Lewis, N.G., 2004. Functional reclassification of the putative cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase multigene family in Arabidopsis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101, 1455-1460.]. Neither AtCAD2 nor AtCAD3, however, were expressed in lignifying tissues, with the latter being found mainly in the meristematic region and non-lignifying root tips, i.e. indicative of involvement in biochemical processes unrelated to lignin formation. By contrast, AtCAD7 and AtCAD8 [surprisingly now currently TAIR-annotated as probable mannitol dehydrogenases, but for which there is still no biochemical or other evidence for same] displayed gene expression patterns largely resembling those of AtCAD4/5, i.e. indicative perhaps of a quite minor role in monolignol/lignin formation. Lastly, AtCAD1 (At1g72680), AtCAD6 (At4g37970) and AtCAD9 (At4g39330), which lacked detectable CAD catalytic activities in vitro, were also expressed predominantly in vascular (lignin-forming) tissues. While their actual biochemical roles remain unknown, definition of their expression patterns, nevertheless, now begins to provide useful insights into potential biochemical/physiological functions, as well as the cell types in which they are expressed. These data thus indicate that the CAD metabolic network is composed primarily of AtCAD4/5 and may provisionally, to a lesser extent, involve AtCAD7/8 based on in vitro catalytic properties and (promoter regions selected to obtain) representative gene expression patterns. This analysis has, therefore, enabled us to systematically map out bona fide CAD gene involvement in both the assembly and differential emergence of the various component parts of the lignified vascular apparatus in Arabidopsis, as well as those having other (e.g. putative plant defense) functions. The data obtained also further underscore the ongoing difficulties and challenges as regards current limitations in gene annotations versus actual determination of gene function. This is exemplified by the annotation of AtCAD2, 3 and 6-9 as purported mannitol dehydrogenases, when, for example, no in vitro studies have been carried out to establish such a function biochemically. Such annotations should thus be discontinued in the absence of reliable biochemical and/or other physiological confirmation. In particular, AtCAD2, 3, 6 and 9 should be designated as dehydrogenases of unknown function. Just as importantly, the different patterns of gene expression noted during distinct phases of growth and development in specific cells/tissues gives insight into the study of the roles that these promoters have.

Changes in homogalacturonans (HGs) and enzymes degrading them have been investigated during cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) cotyledon expansion. Using an in vivo assay for pectin-degrading enzymes that involves fluorescent labeled oligomers of GalA as substrate and capillary electrophoresis for product analysis, we found that endo- and exo-polygalacturonases are present in the cotyledon extracellular spaces, and there are dramatic changes in the levels of both activities as the cotyledons change their rate of expansion. Capacity for endo-polygalacturonase activity was highest during the initial stages of cotyledon expansion. However, for exo-polygalacturonase activity it was highest in the later stages of expansion. Cell walls were prepared from 3-, 5-, and 7-day-old cotton cotyledons and treated with liquid HF at -23 degrees C. This treatment cleaves the glycosidic linkages of most neutral sugars in the walls without degrading HGs. HGs with a relatively high degree of esterification can then be solubilized with water, and those with low esterification can be solubilized with concentrated imidazole buffer. The majority of HGs were obtained in the water extracts. The degrees of esterification were 57%, 47%, and 47% in water extracts and 34%, 25%, and 27% in imidazole extracts, in 3-, 5-, and 7-day-old cotton cotyledons, respectively. Using a PA100 ion-exchange column, the members of a GalA homologous series up to approximately 70 residues can be separated. The results from HG molecular length distribution analysis indicated that the HG at 3 days was on average shorter than that in the older cotyledons, perhaps reflecting the higher level of endo-polygalacturonase activity at this stage of more rapid growth.

Alpha-expansins are bound to the cell wall of plants and can be solubilized with an extraction buffer containing 1 M NaCl. Localization of alpha-expansins in the cell wall was confirmed by immunogold labeling and electron microscopy. The subcellular localization of vegetative beta-expansins has not yet been studied. Using antibodies specific for OsEXPB3, a vegetative beta-expansin of rice (Oryza sativa L.), we found that OsEXPB3 is tightly bound to the cell wall and, unlike alpha-expansins, cannot be solubilized with extraction buffer containing 1 M NaCl. OsEXPB3 protein could only be extracted with buffer containing SDS. The subcellular localization of the OsEXPB3 protein was confirmed by immunogold labeling and electron microscopy. Gold particles were mainly distributed over the primary cell walls. Immunohistochemistry showed that OsEXPB3 is present in all regions of the coleoptile and root tissues tested.

Hypergravity stimuli, gravitational acceleration of more than 1 x g, decrease the growth rate of azuki bean epicotyls and maize coleoptiles and mesocotyls by decreasing the cell wall extensibility via an increase in the molecular mass of matrix polysaccharides. An increase in the pH in the apoplastic fluid is hypothesized to be involved in the processes of the increase in the molecular mass of matrix polysaccharides due to hypergravity. However, whether such physiological changes by hypergravity are induced by normal physiological responses or caused by physiological damages have not been elucidated. In the present study, we examined the effects of the removal of hypergravity stimuli on growth and the cell wall properties of azuki bean and maize seedlings to clarify whether the effects of hypergravity stimuli on growth and the cell wall properties are reversible or irreversible. When the seedlings grown under hypergravity conditions at 300 x g for several hours were transferred to 1 x g conditions, the growth rate of azuki bean epicotyls and maize coleoptiles and mesocotyls greatly increased within a few hours. The recovery of growth rate of these organs was accompanied by an immediate increase in the cell wall extensibility, a decrease in the molecular mass of matrix polysaccharides, and an increase in matrix polysaccharide-degrading activities. The apoplastic pH also decreased promptly upon the removal of hypergravity stimuli. These results suggest that plants regulate the growth rate of shoots reversibly in response to hypergravity stimuli by changing the cell wall properties, by which they adapt themselves to different gravity conditions. This study also revealed that changes in growth and the cell wall properties under hypergravity conditions could be recognized as normal physiological responses of plants. In addition, the results suggest that the effects of microgravity on plant growth and cell wall properties should be reversible and could disappear promptly when plants are transferred from microgravity to 1 x g. Therefore, plant materials should be fixed or frozen on orbit for detecting microgravity-induced changes in physiological parameters after recovering the materials to earth in space experiments., (c2003 COSPAR. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The effect of spaceflight on starch development in soybean (Glycine max L., BRIC-03) and potato (Solanum tuberosum, Astroculture-05) was compared with ground controls by biophysical and biochemical measurements. Starch grains from plants from both flights were on average 20-50% smaller in diameter than ground controls. The ratio delta X/delta rho (delta X --difference of magnetic susceptibilities, delta rho--difference of densities between starch and water) of starch grains was ca. 15% and 4% higher for space-grown soybean cotyledons and potato tubers, respectively, than in corresponding ground controls. Since the densities of particles were similar for all samples (1.36 to 1.38 g/cm3), the observed difference in delta X/delta rho was due to different magnetic susceptibilities and indicates modified composition of starch grains. In starch preparations from soybean cotyledons (BRIC-03) subjected to controlled enzymatic degradation with alpha-amylase for 24 hours, 77 +/- 6% of the starch from the flight cotyledons was degraded compared to 58 +/- 12% in ground controls. The amylose content in starch was also higher in space-grown tissues. The good correlation between the amylose content and delta X/delta rho suggests, that the magnetic susceptibility of starch grains is related to their amylose content. Since the seedlings from the BRIC-03 experiment showed elevated post-flight ethylene levels, material from another flight experiment (GENEX) which had normal levels of ethylene was examined and showed no difference to ground controls in size distribution, density, delta X/delta rho and amylose content. Therefore the role of ethylene appears to be more important for changes in starch metabolism than microgravity., (c2001 COSPAR. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Upon illumination, the cotyledons of Catharanthus roseus seedlings readily synthesise vindoline from late biosynthetic intermediates, which accumulate in etiolated seedlings. The cellular localisation of tryptophan decarboxylase (TDC) and desacetoxyvindoline 4-hydroxylase (D4H), which catalyse the first and penultimate reactions of vindoline biosynthesis, was identified by immunocytochemistry in developing seedlings. The expression of TDC was restricted to the upper epidermis of cotyledons, whereas that of D4H was confined to laticifer cells. Light exposure of etiolated seedlings significantly induced D4H enzyme activity without changing the steady-state levels of D4H immunoreactive protein or modifying the cellular distribution of D4H expression in dark-grown seedlings. These results suggest that the early and late stages of vindoline biosynthesis occupy different cellular compartments, even in the early phases of etiolated seedling development. The role of light in activating the late stages of vindoline biosynthesis does not, therefore, seem to be related to the formation of the laticifer and idioblast cell types. It is concluded that light is not required for formation of these cell types, whereas regulatory factors, restricted to idioblasts and laticifers, may respond to light to activate localised expression of the late stages of vindoline biosynthesis.

Light and nitrate are the major factors regulating the nitrite reductase (NiR) amongst various environmental and metabolic cues in plants. Hot pepper was used to investigate this regulatory mechanism of the NiR gene expression and its dependency on light and nitrate. The major results from this study are: (I) the nir partial clone (581 bp) obtained from hot pepper genomic DNA by degenerative polymerase chain reaction exhibited an amino acid sequence that is highly homologous with other plants. (II) Genomic DNA blot analysis and the NiR electrophoretic assay revealed that a small multigene family encodes NiR, which exists at least in two isoforms. (III) The light-mediated increase of NiR activity is correlated with the nitrate concentration, showing saturation kinetics above 50 mM of nitrate. (IV) Exogenous nitrate was required for the appearance of nir transcripts, but not for the enzyme activity. These results suggest that the gene expression of NiR in hot pepper is determined by the presence of nitrate at the transcriptional level. Furthermore, light has a synergistic effect on the action of nitrate on NiR levels.

Spinach (Spinacia oleracea) cytosolic fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase (FBPase) was purified and the final preparation of protein has a specific activity of about 45 units/mg protein and a single band of molecular mass of 39 kDa. Polyclonal antibody against the protein did not cross-react with chloroplast FBPase, but showed strong cross-reactivity with all plant cytosolic FBPases tested. Studies of the FBPase expression characteristics at early stages of development demonstrated that it was controlled at both the transcriptional and translational levels, and its mRNA was detected even in etiolated cotyledons. This suggests that the expression is not light-inducible. A single transcript was detected in all spinach tissues tested. Western blot analysis revealed two protein bands in the etiolated cotyledons: one was the same size as that present in the mature leaf, and the other slightly smaller. A high enzyme activity was detected in etiolated cotyledons, especially compared to protein levels in Western blots. Expression of the cytosolic FBPase gene during leaf development showed no change in the steady-state level of mRNA, but the protein level and enzyme activity were higher in mature leaves than in young ones, suggesting that the increase in FBPase activity during development is due to an increase in protein synthesis. Young roots showed low enzyme activity, but an unexpectedly high activity was detected in old fiber roots.

Extracts of the cotyledons of germinated honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos) seeds, which contain galactomannan as a reserve polysaccharide in the endosperm, were fractionated by chromatography and the fractions examined for the presence of a specific manno-6-kinase which could phosphorylate the D-mannose released by hydrolysis of galactomannan. One particulate hexokinase (the major hexose-6-kinase fraction) and two soluble hexokinase fractions (the minor portion), as well as a soluble fructo-6-kinase fraction, were initially separated. From chromatography, electrophoresis and kinetic studies, no evidence for a specific manno-kinase was obtained. This and the level and kinetic behaviour of the particulate hexokinase implicated it as the enzyme catalysing the phosphorylation of released D-mannose. The fructo-kinase activity was further separated into three fractions. Kinetic studies on one of these with native and synthetic substrates indicated that the structural requirements for the monosaccharide substrate were a beta-D-anomeric 2-OH in the furanose ring, a 4-OH trans to the D-5-CH2OH and a -CH2OH substituent on C2 (trans to the 5-CH2OH) which could be modified. The orientation of the hydroxyl on C-3 had only a limited effect.

We have demonstrated that etiolated soybean seedlings grown under the altered gravity conditions of clinorotation (1 rpm) and centrifugation (5xg) exhibit changes in starch metabolism. Cotyledon starch concentration was lower (-28%) in clinorotated plants and higher (+24%) in centrifuged plants than in vertical control plants. The activity of ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase in the cotyledons was affected in a similar way, i.e. lower (-37%) in the clinorotated plants and higher (+22%) in the centrifuged plants. Other starch metabolic enzyme activities, starch synthase, starch phosphorylase and total hydrolase were not affected by the altered gravity treatments. We conclude that the observed changes in starch concentrations were primarily due to gravity-mediated differences in ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase activity.

An early gravity-transduction event in oat coleoptiles which precedes any noticeable bending is the accumulation of calcium on their prospective slower-growing side. Sub-cellular calcium localization studies indicate that the gravity-stimulated redistribution of calcium results in an increased concentration of calcium in the walls of responding cells. Since calcium can inhibit the extension growth of plant cell walls, this selective accumulation of calcium in walls may play a role in inducing the asymmetry of growth which characterizes gravitropism. The active transport of calcium from cells into walls is performed by a calcium-dependent ATPase localized in the plasma membrane. Evidence is presented in support of the hypothesis that this calcium pump is regulated by a feed-back mechanism which includes the participation of calmodulin.