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This study aimed at optimizing the accumulation of phytoene in Chlorella sorokiniana by using norflurazon and investigating the capacity of green and traditional solvents to extract carotenoids by ultrasound-assisted extraction with and without previous milling. Phytoene-rich first described C. sorokiniana biomass was used, both fresh, freeze-dried, and encapsulated. The ideal dose of norflurazon (1 µg/mL) was selected to block the carotenoid pathway at the level of phytoene desaturase and induce the accumulation of phytoene in C. sorokiniana. A mill pre-treatment allowed a higher recovery of carotenoids compared to non-milled samples, in both the freeze-dried and encapsulated matrices. 2-Methyloxolane provided a higher total carotenoid content (4.75–5546.96 µg/g) compared to the other solvents tested in all the matrices, proving a promising bio-based solvent to replace traditional organic ones for the extraction of microalgal carotenoids.

The aim of this work was to evaluate the characteristics of nine kaki vinegars produced using different yeasts and bacteria traditionally involved in wine production, and to evaluate their acidity, density, total phenolic content, and antioxidant activity. Furthermore, the study characterized the volatile fingerprinting by headspace-gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry (HS-GC-IMS) and by two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GCxGC-TOF-MS). Finally, individual carotenoids were characterized using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). More than a thousand distinguishing molecules were found. It was discovered that vinegars fermented with S. cerevisiae produced a larger number of volatile chemicals. Among the three vinegars produced with this strain, the one fermented with Acetobacter_vino seemed to have a more elaborate flavour profile than all the other samples. The vinegar produced utilizing the mixture of T. delbruekii and Acetobacter was the only kind to have a high concentration of carotenoids.

In this preliminary study, the effect of regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) on the commercial quality (size, weight, soluble solids, firmness and colour), content of carotenoids, phenolics and sugars of black tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) ʽSunchocolaʼ was studied. Two water irrigation treatments were applied: regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) and control with 82,7 and 398 mm of water supplied, respectively. Tomato of the first cluster harvested at three stages of maturity were studied. The size and weight of the tomato did not present significant differences regarding the RDI and maturity. In both groups the concentration of carotenoids and phenolics increased with the degree of maturity (on average 57 % and 8 % respectively). On the other hand, in most cases, the content of carotenoids, phenolics and sugars showed significant differences between irrigation treatments (p < 0.1). In conclusion, with the application of the RDI, it was possible to maintain the size and weight and increase the carotenoid levels of the fruits.

Phytoene and phytofluene are rarities among carotenoids as they are colourless, have a less rigid conformation and differ in their reactivity compared to other bioavailable carotenoids. Although they have been traditionally ignored, there is an expanding interest in them as recent studies indicate that they are present in some widely consumed foods, are bioavailable and may be involved in health-promoting biological actions. According to some reviews associations between lycopene intake from tomato products and health should be revised to include other compounds present in tomato, including colourless carotenoids, because there are still obscure points in the possible health benefits of pure lycopene. Basics about colourless carotenoids are summarized together with recent studies in the context of agro-food and health.

Although oral drug delivery is the preferred administration route and has been used for centuries, modern drug discovery and development pipelines challenge conventional formulation approaches and highlight the insufficient mechanistic understanding of processes critical to oral drug absorption. This review presents the opinion of UNGAP scientists on four key themes across the oral absorption landscape: (1) specific patient populations, (2) regional differences in the gastrointestinal tract, (3) advanced formulations and (4) food-drug interactions. The differences of oral absorption in pediatric and geriatric populations, the specific issues in colonic absorption, the formulation approaches for poorly water-soluble (small molecules) and poorly permeable (peptides, RNA etc.) drugs, as well as the vast realm of food effects, are some of the topics discussed in detail. The identified controversies and gaps in the current understanding of gastrointestinal absorption-related processes are used to create a roadmap for the future of oral drug absorption research.

Production of high-quality healthy foods through sustainable methodologies is an urgent necessity. High pressure homogenization (HPH) is an interesting alternative to obtain premium citrus juices, but its effects on bioactive compounds are unclear. There was studied the influence of HPH (150 MPa) and pasteurization (92 °C for 30 s and 85 °C for 15 s) processing on physicochemical properties and in vitro bioaccessibility of carotenoids and flavonoids in orange juices. Regarding fresh juice, physicochemical properties of samples remained unchanged although cloudiness was improved by homogenization. Pasteurization did not affect total carotenoids content and retinol activity equivalents (RAE) of juices whereas homogenization yielded a significant reduction (1.37 and 1.35-fold, respectively). Interestingly, particle size reduction from homogenization drastically enhanced (about 5-fold) bioaccessibility of carotenoids including hardly bioaccessible epoxycarotenoids, finding unaltered rates in pasteurized samples. Bioaccessibility of flavonoids was constant in all cases. Results can promote HPH as an efficient option to obtain health-enhanced foods.

High-pressure technologies are among those with increased interest in the sustainable production of quality-enhanced food products. In this work, Ortanique mandarin juices have been submitted to traditional pasteurization conditions (time/temperature of 65 °C/15 s, 85 °C/15 s and 92 °C/30 s) and energy-saving high-pressure homogenization (HPH, 150 MPa) treatments to compare the effects on the physicochemical composition and in vitro bioaccessibility of carotenoids and flavonoids. In general, physicochemical attributes of the homogenized sample were similar to those found in fresh juice, with similar ascorbic acid content and cloudiness but with significant colour differences in all cases. The bioaccessibility of total carotenoids was similar in fresh and pasteurized juices in contrast to the HPH sample that exhibited a five-fold increase, which suggests a positive effect of particle size reduction to favour the action of digestive enzymes. A clear increase in the levels of epoxycarotenoids was detected in the micellar fractions of digested HPH juices, although such carotenoids are not detected in human fluids or tissues. Regarding the bioaccessibility of flavonoids, no significant differences were found in the samples studied. Results obtained can help the implementation of HPH processing to obtain natural beverages with enhanced nutritional properties.

Around the world, the tomato is considered the most important vegetable because of the extent of the cultivated area. In addition, it requires vast amounts of irrigation but little is known about the management of deficit irrigation. This study aims to evaluate the effect of regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) on development of crop and fruit quality for cherry tomatoes (ʽLazarinoʼ and ʽSummerbrixʼ). Two different cherry cultivars were used during two crop cycles (autumn and spring). RDI was scheduled with an initial period of no water stress and with a period of deficit from the beginning of the flowering, with a threshold of midday leaf water potential of around −1 MPa. It was found that the response to the irrigation treatment was affected by the season and even by the cluster considered. During the autumn cycle, there were no clear differences in yield despite water stress being mild but still significant. In the spring cycle, yield reduction peaked with different responses between cultivars. Water stress reduced fruit weight and fruit number per cluster in cv Summerbrix, producing a continuous decrease throughout the harvest period. In cv Lazarino, a yield reduction was detected only at the end of the harvest period and was related to the decrease in fruit weight and the number of inflorescence. The application of RDI reduced water by 85% and increased the content of soluble sugar, carotenoids and total phenols in both cultivars and cycles.

The aim of this study was to assess commercial quality parameters, sugars, phenolics, carotenoids and plastid in diverse and little studied tomato varieties to gain insight into their commercial and functional quality and reveal possible noticeable differences. Five cherry tomato varieties and six common (i.e., non-cherry) tomatoes were evaluated. The highest levels of lycopene were detected in ‘Tigerella’ and ‘Byelsa’ and those of phytoene in ‘Orangeʾ those of phenolics in ‘Green Zebra’ all of them common tomatoes. The levels of sugars in both groups of tomatoes were comparable. Interesting differences in plastid carotenoid-accumulating sub-structures as a function of the carotenoid profile were observed. Given the importance of chromoplasts in the deposition of carotenoids in plants and their release during digestion, this information can be valuable in investigations on the regulation of the biosynthesis and the bioavailability of tomato carotenoids.

Carotenoids are lipophilic isoprenoid compounds synthesized by all photosynthetic organisms and some non-photosynthetic bacteria and fungi. With some notable exceptions, animals (including humans) do not produce carotenoids de novo but take them in their diets. In photosynthetic systems carotenoids are essential for photoprotection against excess light and contribute to light harvesting, but perhaps they are best known for their properties as natural pigments in the yellow to red range. Carotenoids can be associated to fatty acids, sugars, proteins, or other compounds that can change their physical and chemical properties and influence their biological roles. Furthermore, oxidative cleavage of carotenoids produces smaller molecules such as apocarotenoids, some of which are important pigments and volatile (aroma) compounds. Enzymatic breakage of carotenoids can also produce biologically active molecules in both plants (hormones, retrograde signals) and animals (retinoids). Both carotenoids and their enzymatic cleavage products are associated with other processes positively impacting human health. Carotenoids are widely used in the industry as food ingredients, feed additives, and supplements. This review, contributed by scientists of complementary disciplines related to carotenoid research, covers recent advances and provides a perspective on future directions on the subjects of carotenoid metabolism, biotechnology, and nutritional and health benefits.

The purpose of this study was to assess the relationship between the effect of regulated deficit irrigation, cluster, developmental stages and two seasons (autumn 2015 and spring 2016) on the commercial and functional quality (carotenoids and plenolics levels) in ‘Lazarino’ and 'summerbrix’ tomatoes. Autumn had a positive effect on the commercial quality, with larger fruits (22% in 'summerbrix’; 26% in ‘Lazarino’) and higher soluble solids (16% in 'summerbrix’; 12% in ‘Lazarino’). Total carotenoids did not change significantly with irrigation and variety while total phenolics did with the cluster and season. In most cases, the main amounts of carotenoids and phenolic were found in the higher cluster and carotenoids in ripe fruit. Thus, irrigation of such varieties could be reduced drastically (ca. 80%) without affecting considerably the overall quality of their fruits (changes not greater than 30%).

This study aims to evaluate the effects of regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) and of cluster position (CI: first and second cluster; CII: third and fourth cluster; CIII: fifth and sixth cluster) on fruit quality parameters, carotenoids and phenolics in tomatoes. Three common (‘Tigerella’, ‘Palamós’ and ‘Byelsa’) and two cherry varieties (‘Lazarino’ and ‘Summerbrix’) were studied. The results showed that the regulated deficit irrigation with reduction of 40 and 50% in the leaf water potential in common and cherry tomatoes did not affect greatly the organoleptic quality of common tomatoes and ʽSummerbrixʼ, while cherry varieties were significantly affected with the cluster position. In most case, significant changes in the levels of carotenoids were observed depending on the treatment and the cluster position in all varieties. Significant changes with the treatment and no change with the cluster position were observed in phenolic compounds. Thus, in general, increased total carotenoid levels and reduced the content of phenolic compounds were observed. Considering the significance of changes in the levels of these groups of compounds it was concluded that ʽLazarinoʼ was more susceptible to water deficit, whereas ʽSummerbrixʼ and ʽPalamósʼ were more resistant. On the other hand, the organoleptic and functional quality changed with the variety.

Carotenoids and their derivatives are versatile isoprenoids involved in many varied actions, hence their importance in the agri-food industry, nutrition, health and other fields. All carotenoids are derived from the colorless carotenes phytoene and phytofluene, which are oddities among carotenoids due to their distinct chemical structure. They occur together with lycopene in tomato and other lycopene-containing foods. Furthermore, they are also present in frequently consumed products like oranges and carrots, among others. The intake of phytoene plus phytofluene has been shown to be higher than that of lycopene and other carotenoids in Luxembourg. This is likely to be common in other countries. However, they are not included in food carotenoid databases, hence they have not been linked to health benefits in epidemiological studies. Interestingly, there are evidences in vitro, animal models and humans indicating that they may provide health benefits. In this sense, the study of these colorless carotenes in the context of food science, nutrition and health should be further encouraged. In this work, we review much of the existing knowledge concerning their chemical characteristics, physico-chemical properties, analysis, distribution in foods, bioavailability and likely biological activities.

The impact of an industrial debittering process (DP) on nutritional and bioactive compounds in orange juice (OJ) was studied. The DP was aimed at removing bitter components in OJ by physical adsorption in a resin. The levels of bioactive compounds (carotenoids, ascorbic acid and phenolics), total antioxidant activity and the colour in the fresh orange juices (non-debittered) and in the debittered counterparts were measured. The results demonstrated that the carotenoid contents were not significantly affected by the treatment. However, the debittered orange juices showed a reduction (p < 0.001) of 26% in ascorbic acid, 32% in hydroxycinnamic acids, 28% of flavones and 41% of flavanones in comparison with the non-treated juices. The antioxidant activity of the hydrophilic fraction (HF) was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in untreated juice than in debittered juices. Some colour parameters (L*, a* and hab) were also affected. Discriminant analysis revealed that the canonical function related to the levels of HF compounds allowed a 100% correct classifications of the different types of juices.

Ultrafrozen orange juices are produced to preserve the nutritional and sensory quality of the fresh juices. However the effects of the thawing conditions on the nutritional quality have been scarcely studied. To gain insight into this subject we have assessed the impact of different thawing conditions (microwave, room and refrigeration temperature) on the carotenoids levels and bioaccessibility in ultrafrozen orange juices. Other related properties, such as colour, and antioxidant activity were also evaluated. The results demonstrated that the bioactive carotenoid content and the antioxidant activity were significantly affected by the microwave thawing. These juices showed the highest values for the % of relative bioaccessibility of provitamin A carotenoids, when compared to the other thawing conditions. On the other hand, thawing at room or refrigeration temperatures did not have a negative impact neither on the colour, provitamin A and macular carotenoid compounds nor in the antioxidant activity.

The color of orange juice influences consumers' choice, hence much importance has been given to the assessment of this attribute for decades. The instrumental measurement of orange juice color can be harnessed for the rapid, quality-control oriented estimation of its carotenoids, which are health-promoting compounds. In this work we compared and analyzed different spectroscopic data that can be used for these purposes, like the reflectance spectra of orange juices and the absorption spectra of their carotenoid extracts. Additionally, we have revisited the Kubelka-Munk theory and have concluded that its parameters are suitable to assess the carotenoid content of the samples, but not as much as the CIELAB color coordinates. In this regard, we have observed that K/. S is the Kubelka-Munk parameter best correlated with the carotenoid content of the orange juices surveyed (r= -0.84), although better correlations were observed when the CIELAB coordinate a* was considered (r= 0.86 and 0.88 for measurements with white and black background, respectively). However, in our opinion, this fact should not lead to dismissing the usefulness of the Kubelka-Munk theory to estimate carotenoid contents, since its application can lead to obtaining valuable information about the absorption and scattering properties of the samples.

We have devised a more sensible approach to estimate the carotenoid content of orange juices, which can be regarded as a model system of food with intricate carotenoid pattern. For this purpose spectroscopic information at several wavelengths and spectra of the juices and not from their carotenoid extracts were considered, such that more accurate and rapid quantitative assessments can be achieved. The wavelengths proposed on the basis of the characteristic vector method were 420, 455, 515, 545 and 610 nm or 420, 445, 510, 545 and 605 nm, depending on the measurement conditions. The correlations between the carotenoid content and the reflectances at these wavelengths were very good (R = 0.94 and 0.90, respectively). Additionally, it was demonstrated that the colour of the juices could be assessed with very good accuracy considering them. Due to its simplicity and rapidity, this method is intended to facilitate the quality control of the carotenoid content of foodstuffs in the industry and/or in the field.