Search

Resumen: Introducción: la redacción de historias clínicas (HC) es una competencia básica en la formación del médico. Es el fundamento para construir hipótesis diagnósticas y garantizar una atención adecuada, segura y efectiva. Además, la HC tiene implicaciones legales, epidemiológicas y de calidad asistencial. Con este estudio pretendimos conocer la concordancia entre la información recogida del paciente en la consulta y la registrada en la HC por alumnos de Medicina. Métodos: estudio observacional descriptivo transversal sobre una consulta con pacientes simulados y la HC redactada posteriormente. Participaron 112 alumnos de 5.° año de Medicina. Los evaluadores comprobaron en las HC 59 ítems de anamnesis, anamnesis por órganos y aparatos, exploración física y juicio clínico, contrastándolos con las videograbaciones de las consultas y clasificando la concordancia entre ambas. Resultados: la población final fueron 109 alumnos (97,3%). El área competencial con mayor concordancia fue juicio clínico (94,1%). Todos los ítems superaron el 65% de concordancia. Más del 20% de los alumnos no habían registrado en sus HC algunos ítems, aunque los habían recogido en la consulta. Anamnesis por órganos y aparatos fue el área competencial con más ítems omitidos o incorrectos. El único ítem que ningún alumno olvidó recoger y registrar fue «antecedentes personales de dislipidemia». Exploración física fue el área donde más alumnos registraron hallazgos en la HC sin haberlos realizado en la entrevista. Conclusión: el estudio demuestra la alta concordancia de la HC con la información recogida en la consulta y descubre aspectos que nos permitirán mejorar la formación en semiología médica de los alumnos. Abstract: Introduction: Writing medical histories (MH) is a basic competence in the physician's training. It is the cornerstone for constructing diagnostic hypotheses and guaranteeing adequate, safe and effective care. In addition, MH has legal, epidemiological and quality of care implications. The aim of this study was to determine the concordance between the information collected from the patient in the consultation room and that recorded in the MH by medical students. Methods: This is a cross-sectional descriptive observational study on a consultation with simulated patients and the subsequently written MH. A total of 112 5th-year medical students participated. The evaluators checked 59 items of anamnesis, anamnesis by organs and apparatus, physical examination and clinical judgment in the MH, contrasting them with the video recordings of the consultations, and classifying the concordance between both. Results: Final population was 109 students (97.3%). The competency area with the highest concordance was clinical judgment (94.1%). All items exceeded 65% agreement. More than 20% of the students had not recorded some items in their MH, although they had collected them in the consultation. Anamnesis by organs and apparatus was the competency area with the most omitted or incorrect items. The only item that no student forgot to collect and record was “personal history of dyslipidemia”. Physical examination was the area where most students recorded findings in the MH without having made them in the interview. Conclusion: The study demonstrates high concordance in the MH with the information collected in the consultation and shows aspects that will allow us to improve the medical semiology training of students.

Resumen: La capacitación toxicológica cursa con disparidad en relación con otras áreas del conocimiento médico, lo que favorece vacíos cognitivos en los profesionales de la salud. Este documento presenta una propuesta educativa para el abordaje de «toxíndromes mayores» a través de un esquema que integra su identificación y tratamiento mediante escenarios de simulación clínica con empleo de pacientes simulados/estandarizados para el pregrado médico en el Centro Universitario del Sur de la Universidad de Guadalajara, desarrollado durante el año 2023. Abstract: Toxicological training has disparities in relation to other areas of medical knowledge, which favors cognitive gaps in health professionals. This document presents an educational proposal for the approach of “major toxidromes” through a scheme that integrates their identification and treatment through clinical simulation scenarios with the use of simulated/standardized patients for the medical undergraduate degree at the Centro Universitario del Sur of the Universidad de Guadalajara, developed during the year 2023.

Objective: With the implementation of American Board of Surgery (ABS) Entrustable Professional Activities (EPAs), there is continued need for objective, evidence-based assessment tools to augment existing microassessments and inform readiness for entrustment. The ENTRUST Assessment Platform is an online virtual-patient simulation platform to assess trainees' surgical decision-making competence across preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative phases of care. This study collects additional validity evidence for the ENTRUST platform in its relationship to other established variables in competency-based surgical education., Design: This is a prospective analysis of surgical resident performance on the ENTRUST Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ) pain/Appendicitis EPA Assessment. ENTRUST scores were analyzed by PGY-level and correlations with Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) Case Logs, ACGME Surgery Milestones, and ABS In-Service Training Examination (ABSITE) scores were evaluated. Bivariate analyses were performed using Spearman rank correlations., Setting: This study was conducted at a tertiary academic center (Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA) in a proctored exam setting., Participants: Thirty-two PGY-1 though PGY-5 general surgery residents completed the ENTRUST RLQ Pain/Appendicitis EPA Assessment containing four case scenarios which were iteratively developed and scored by expert consensus and aligned with ABS EPA definitions., Results: ENTRUST grand total score was positively correlated with PGY-level (rho = 0.57, p = 0.001), ACGME appendectomy case log volume (rho = 0.55, p = 0.002), and ABSITE raw score (rho = 0.66, p = 0.0004). ENTRUST performance was significantly correlated with all eighteen ACGME Surgery Milestones (rho = 0.43 to rho = 0.54, all p≤0.01), with the strongest correlation seen for PC1 (Patient Evaluation and Decision Making) (rho = 0.54, p = 0.006)., Conclusions: Performance on ENTRUST was significantly correlated with established variables in surgical training, including ACGME Appendectomy Case Logs, ABSITE, and ACGME Surgery Milestones. This study strengthens existing validity evidence for the ENTRUST Assessment Platform as an objective assessment of clinical decision-making. ENTRUST is an assessment tool which can augment microassessments and support competency-based medical education., (Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Context: Many general pediatrics residents lack sufficient opportunities to conduct difficult conversations with families, particularly about end-of-life care. Simulation learning is an effective means of practicing professional skills. A pediatric palliative care (PPC) physician is uniquely suited to mentor residents and fellows learning to lead difficult conversations through simulation. Co-facilitation of the simulated difficult conversation by a bereaved parent or family member enhances the learning experience., Objectives: To report 11-years' experience simulating difficult conversations with bereaved parent-actors., Methods: PPC physicians developed two simulations to teach difficult conversations to clinical learners at a midwestern quaternary pediatric medical center. Bereaved parents and hospital chaplains co-facilitated the simulation. The first portrayed the death of an infant following emergency resuscitation, and the second, a goals-of-care conversation with the parent of a child with a degenerative condition. A de-novo evaluation rubric was prepared using the six Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) Core Competencies to evaluate the participant's performance in the simulation., Results: For the first simulated scenario (N=194 residents; N=16 fellows), residents improved significantly on 16/21 ACGME-based criteria between encounters; for the second (N=118 residents; N=14 fellows), residents improved significantly on 10/21 criteria. Fellows' performance did not improve significantly in either scenario, but they presented with high baseline scores., Conclusions: Simulations with bereaved parent actors improved general pediatrics residents' performance and comfort during difficult conversations and are transportable to diverse settings., Competing Interests: Declartion of competing interest Nothing to disclose., (Copyright © 2024. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Objectives: The objective of this study was to develop and validate 6 checklists for evaluating abdominal pain in clinical simulation scenarios; to assess student competencies in managing 6 clinical cases using OSCE, based on faculty evaluations; and to analyze discrepancies between faculty and student evaluations., Design: A practical workshop was designed to address 6 clinical scenarios of abdominal surgical conditions. Four scenarios employed medium fidelity simulators, while 2 scenarios employed standardized patient methodology. Prior to the workshop, students received theoretical audiovisual material. At the conclusion of the workshop, students were evaluated using checklists that assessed communication, privacy, anamnesis, and technical skills. Ten workshops were conducted over 3 years, using the OSCE (Objective Structured Clinical Examination) format for evaluation., Setting: In the statistical analysis, t-Student tests or ANOVA were employed to ascertain whether there were any significant differences between the groups. In the process of validating checklists for clinical scenarios, 6 experts were asked to evaluate each item on a scale of 1 to 9. To assess the degree of agreement among experts, the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) was employed., Participants: The study involved a total of 670 third-year medical students from the University of Murcia (UMU), Spain, who participated in the subject "Medical-Surgical Skills.", Results: High levels of appropriateness were observed for the checklist items, with mean scores above 7.5 points, as well as high levels of inter-expert agreement. Students obtained a mean score of 8 points in the evaluation of each clinical scenario. No significant differences were found between faculty and student scores (p < 0.05)., Conclusions: The learning method focused on clinical scenarios of abdominal surgical diseases effectively enhanced the clinical skills of third-year medical students. It used pre-existing audiovisual materials, hands-on workshops with medium-fidelity simulators, and standardized patients. Consistent evaluations from students and faculty confirmed the efficacy of these strategies., (Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background and Purpose: The objective of this project was to assess the impact of self-care scenario simulations on first year doctor of pharmacy student performance and self-perceived confidence in applying the Pharmacists' Patient Care Process (PPCP) during self-care encounters., Educational Activity and Settings: Self-care scenarios were developed and used during low fidelity simulations in laboratory sessions in a skills-based course. Students met individually with faculty facilitators role-playing patients to apply the PPCP in four simulations. Facilitators graded student performance; a comparison was made between performance on the first and fourth simulation. Students completed a pre- and post-course survey regarding their self-perceived confidence in performance and knowledge in applying the PPCP in self-care encounters., Findings: One hundred and eight (100%) of enrolled students voluntarily agreed to participate in this IRB-approved study. The median percentage of student scores on the fourth simulation, 90.7%, was higher compared to the median percentage of student scores on the first simulation, 82.4%, P < 0.001 with a raw difference of 8.3 percentage points, for participants with scores for both simulations, 106 (98%). For the self-perceived PPCP confidence survey, 100 (92.5%) participants completed both pre- and post-course surveys. Self-perceived confidence on 12 of the 15 survey items where students ranked their confidence in performance and knowledge in self-care encounters increased post- versus pre-course., Summary: Simulations served as a useful tool in improving student performance in applying the PPCP in self-care encounters in a first year doctor of pharmacy course. Student self-perceived confidence in performance and knowledge in self-care encounters also increased., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors have no conflicts of interests or disclosures to declare., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Trauma-informed care (TIC) is growing in medical education as health care systems recognize trauma's impact on health outcomes. TIC acknowledges and responds to the effects of trauma on physical, psychological, and emotional health. As TIC trainings are developed and delivered to health care professionals across the learner continuum, curricula need evaluation beyond learner satisfaction and knowledge to better assess changes in skills. We developed the Gap Kalamazoo Communication Skills Assessment Form for Trauma-Informed Care (GKCSAF-TIC) to evaluate pediatric trainees' communication skills in TIC. We describe the development and validity evidence of the GKCSAF-TIC in assessing pediatric residents' TIC skills during standardized patient encounters., Methods: We developed and implemented the TIC communication skills assessment tool in a one-year prospective cohort study involving pediatric residents. We conducted simulated patient encounters conducted before and after TIC training, with two pediatric faculty attendings assessing each encounter. We gathered validity evidence using Messick's framework, focusing on content, response process, internal structure, and relationship with other variables., Results: We analyzed 57 standardized patient encounters with 33 pediatric interns, including 23 pre-post matched pairs. The development process and rater training supported content and response process validity. Internal consistency, measured by Cronbach's alpha, ranged from 0.93 to 0.96, while inter-rater reliability, measured by intraclass correlations, ranged from 0.80 to 0.83. There was a significant improvement in scores from pre-training to post-training (3.7/5 to 4.05/5; P < 0.05)., Conclusion: The GKCSAF-TIC demonstrated strong preliminary validity and offers educators a valuable means to assess and provide formative feedback to pediatric trainees about TIC., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose., (Copyright © 2024 Academic Pediatric Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: Exploring the integration of artificial intelligence in clinical settings, this study examined the feasibility of using Generative Pretrained Transformer 4 (GPT-4), a large language model, as a consultation assistant in a hand surgery outpatient clinic., Methods: The study involved 10 simulated patient scenarios with common hand conditions, where GPT-4, enhanced through specific prompt engineering techniques, conducted medical history interviews, and assisted in diagnostic processes. A panel of expert hand surgeons, each board-certified in hand surgery, evaluated GPT-4's responses using a Likert Scale across five criteria with scores ranging from 1 (lowest) to 5 (highest)., Results: Generative Pretrained Transformer 4 achieved an average score of 4.6, reflecting good performance in documenting a medical history, as evaluated by the hand surgeons., Conclusions: These findings suggest that GPT-4 can effectively document medical histories to meet the standards of hand surgeons in a simulated environment. The findings indicate potential for future application in patient care, but the actual performance of GPT-4 in real clinical settings remains to be investigated., Clinical Relevance: This study provides a preliminary indication that GPT-4 could be a useful consultation assistant in a hand surgery outpatient clinic, but further research is required to explore its reliability and practicality in actual practice., Competing Interests: Conflicts of Interest No benefits in any form have been received or will be received related directly to this article., (Copyright © 2024 American Society for Surgery of the Hand. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Simulated mental health role-plays provide a safe and relevant learning experience for pharmacy students, improving confidence in and attitudes towards providing mental health support. Little research explores the use of mental health role-plays, enacted by trained actors, with pharmacists., Objectives: This study aimed to pilot the adaptation of simulated patient (SP) role-plays, from the university classroom with students, to a workshop with pharmacists, and explore pharmacists' experiences., Methods: Pharmacists attended a two-hour workshop. Trained actors enacted simulated scenarios (previously developed for pharmacy education) with pharmacist volunteers, while being observed by peers, a workshop facilitator and mental health consumer educator (MHCE). Pharmacists engaged in self-assessment immediately post-roleplay, followed by performance feedback and debrief discussions with MHCEs, workshop facilitators and peers. Pharmacists completed pre- and post-workshop surveys exploring intended mental health support behaviours, then invited to participate in an interview exploring their workshop experiences and opinions about using mental health role-plays in clinical practice (via mystery shopping). Non-parametric tests were conducted to analyse role-play and survey scores, and thematic analyses undertaken on interview transcripts., Results: Thirty-five pharmacists attended the workshop. Fourteen role-plays were analysed. Pharmacist self-assessment scores were significantly lower than MHCE scores (p=0.028). Overall, the role-plays significantly increased pharmacists' intentions in supporting a person experiencing mental health crises such as suicide and psychosis, as well as encouraging other supports (p<0.05). Four themes emerged from interviews (n=4): realistic context for skills application and practice, benefits of observing, self-assessment and feedback, and integrating into clinical practice (via mystery shopping)., Conclusion: SP role-plays of mental health symptoms and crises, enacted by trained actors, may effectively assess and enhance pharmacists' intended mental health support behaviours. It is recommended that the SP method is adapted into clinical practice, via repeated mystery shopping visits with immediate performance feedback, to shape pharmacists' mental health support behaviours., (Copyright © 2024. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Introduction: Pharmacists need more insight into patients' perspectives on medicine to target their counseling and improve patient outcomes. Patient simulation exercises, where pharmacy students are asked to consume medicine-like products, have been shown to foster such understandings, although the specifics of how this occurs, in particularly, how students turn their first-person perspectives toward generalizations about real patients' lives with medicines, are not well documented. The aim was to identify central aspects of the learning process by introducing reflection questions about real patients and follow students' development during a study period., Methods: The study was conducted with students in their 4th semester in the second year of Pharmacy Education at the University of Copenhagen who were asked to respond to free text questions in a survey instrument about their daily experiences of taking a licorice product for one week as well as answering patient reflection questions. Qualitative deductive analysis was performed by coding students' experiences according to concepts of 'experiential learning'. Pattern identification within each concept was then inferred, as were their interrelationships., Results: Patient reflection questions enabled students to turn their first-person perspectives toward relevant generalizations about real patients' lives with medicines, including involved psychological mechanisms and how real patient groups differ in their ability to take medicine regularly. Students who during the week faced challenges with following the required dosing scheme came to more nuanced realizations that medicine adherence requires special efforts and restricts one's daily life; hence, negative emotions were involved in the learning process., Conclusions: The design of the simple patient simulation exercise gave rise to new types of insights into real patients' lives with medicines. Negative emotions due to interference between the requirements of the exercise and students' normal social lives, as well as commitment to the exercise, were important aspects of this process., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest We declare no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2023. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Background: Emergency Reflex Action Drills (ERADs) are meant to decrease stress-associated cognitive demand in high urgency situations. The aim of this study was to develop and test an ERAD for witnessed traumatic cardiac arrest (TCA), an event in which potentially reversible causes need to be systematically addressed and treated in a short period of time. We hypothesize that this ERAD (the TCA-Drill) helps ground Emergency Medical Services (EMS) nurses in overcoming performance decline during this specific high-pressure situation., Methods: This was a prospective, experimental one-group pre-post intervention study. Ground EMS nurses participated in a session of four simulated scenarios, with an in-between educational session to teach the TCA-Drill. Scenarios were video recorded, after which adherence and time differences were analyzed. Self-confidence on clinical practice was measured before and after the scenarios., Results: Twelve ground EMS nurses participated in this study. Overall median time to address reversible causes of TCA decreased significantly using the TCA-Drill (132 vs. 110 s; p = 0.030) compared with the conventional ALS strategy. More specifically, participants adhering to the TCA-Drill showed a significantly lower time needed for hemorrhage control (58 vs. 37 s; p = 0.012). Eight of 12 (67 %) ground EMS nurses performed the ERAD without protocol deviations. Reported self-confidence significantly increased on 11 of the 13 surveyed items., Conclusions: The use of an ERAD for TCA (the TCA-Drill) significantly reduces the time to address reversible causes for TCA without delaying chest compressions in a simulated environment and can be easily taught to ground EMS nurses and increases self-confidence., Implications for Clinical Practice: The use of an ERAD for TCA (the TCA-Drill can significantly reduce the time to address reversible causes for TCA without delaying chest compression. This drill can be easily taught to ground EMS nurses and increases their self-confidence in addressing TCA-patients., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Resumen: Introducción: Ante la creciente demanda de atención neurológica y la importancia de la exploración neurológica para el diagnóstico, se propone una intervención educativa basada en simulación (IEBS) para el desarrollo de la competencia clínica en exploración neurológica (CCEN). Métodos: Estudio cuasiexperimental con 34 estudiantes de segundo año de Medicina, seleccionados mediante muestreo no probabilístico, excluyendo aquellos que tuvieran algún curso en neurología. Todos recibieron la IEBS, la cual consistió en una sesión de 60 minutos con un experto en neurología, 2 sesiones prácticas de 30 minutos cada una con un paciente estandarizado y posterior retroalimentación y una sesión general de retroalimentación de 60 minutos. Todos los participantes fueron evaluados antes y después de la IEBS utilizando la rúbrica de habilidades clínicas básicas en neurología (HCBN) que considera 9 aspectos de la exploración neurológica. Resultados: Ningún participante contaba con la CCEN antes de la IEBS y 9 la desarrollaron posteriormente. Utilizando la prueba de McNemar, la diferencia en la CCEN entre los grupos pretest y postest fue estadísticamente significativa (0% vs. 26,47%, p = 0,004). De los 9 apartados de la rúbrica, 8 mostraron una mejora significativa (p

Resumen: Introducción: La comunicación de los profesionales de salud se asocia a mejores resultados en pacientes. El Programa para Mejorar las Habilidades Relacionales y de Comunicación (Program to Enhance Relational and Communication Skills [PERCS]) ha sido adaptado a otras culturas. El objetivo de este estudio es describir la efectividad de la versión en español del programa PERCS, desde la perspectiva de los participantes, al término y a los 6 meses del curso. Métodos: Se realizó un proceso de adaptación cultural y epidemiológica del programa PERCS a la realidad de Perú. Para evaluar el impacto educacional del programa se utilizó una aproximación cualitativa y cuantitativa. Resultados: Participaron voluntariamente 39 profesionales. Los participantes consideraron que era más difícil comunicar diagnósticos ominosos (48,15%). La ansiedad es la emoción más frecuente al enfrentar comunicaciones difíciles (77,78%). El 92% declararon que el curso mejoró su preparación y el 88,9% que redujo su ansiedad. A los 6 meses los participantes reconocieron la importancia de la honestidad y la empatía, así como algunas etapas para conducir la entrevista centrada en el paciente. Discusión: Un programa intensivo de entrenamiento en comunicación difícil puede ser adaptado al español e impactar positivamente en las habilidades, la autoconfianza y la autopercepción de aprendizaje en profesionales peruanos, en relación con la promoción de la comunicación enfocada en las necesidades del paciente y su familia. Abstract: Introduction: Good communication by health professionals is associated with better patient outcomes. The Program to Enhance Relational and Communication Skills (PERCS) has been adapted to other cultures. The objective of this study is to describe the effectiveness of the Spanish version of the PERCS program, from the perspective of the participants, at the end of the course and 6 months after the course. Methods: A process of cultural and epidemiological adaptation of the PERCS program to the reality of Peru was carried out. A qualitative and quantitative approach was used to evaluate the educational impact of the program. Results: Thirty-nine professionals participated voluntarily. Participants found it more difficult to communicate ominous diagnoses (48.15%). Anxiety is the most frequent emotion when faced with difficult communications (77.78%). Almost all (92%) stated that the course improved their preparation, and 88.9% that it reduced their anxiety. At 6 months, participants recognised the importance of honesty and empathy, as well as some steps in conducting the patient-centred interview. Discussion: An intensive training program in difficult communication can be adapted to Spanish, and positively impact the skills, self-confidence, and self-perception of learning in Peruvian professionals, in relation to promoting communication focused on the needs of the patient and family.

Resumen: Los escenarios de simulación clínica han sido explorados en medicina y enfermería como estrategia de aprendizaje y han demostrado ser efectivos para la adquisición de competencias acercando a los estudiantes a su práctica clínica real. En fisioterapia, su utilización ha sido recientemente incluida y aún no se ha documentado su potencial como estrategia de fortalecimiento curricular. Este trabajo buscó revisar en la literatura el empleo de la simulación clínica como estrategia pedagógica para la fisioterapia. Para ello, se desarrolló un proceso integrativo con base en el análisis de competencias transversales o específicas. Sus resultados señalan que la simulación mejora la calidad y competencia del fisioterapeuta en formación; el dominio donde más se usa la simulación es el cardiovascular pulmonar, seguido del musculoesquelético. Sin embargo, en fisioterapia se requiere incrementar el uso de simulación en todos los dominios para poder cualificar aún más la formación. Abstract: Clinical simulation scenarios have been explored in medicine and nursing as a learning strategy. They have shown to be effective for the acquisition of skills, bringing students closer to their actual clinical practice. Its use has recently been included in physiotherapy, but its potential as a curriculum strengthening strategy has not yet been documented. This work aims to carry out a review of the literature on the use of clinical simulation as a pedagogical strategy for physiotherapy. To do this, an integrated process was developed, based on the analysis of cross-sectional or specific skills. The results indicate that simulation improves the quality and skills of the physiotherapist in training. The domain where the simulation is most used is pulmonary cardiovascular, followed by the musculoskeletal system. However, in physiotherapy it is necessary to increase the use of simulation in all domains in order to qualify the training even more.

Background: Pharmacists and pharmacy assistants can support consumers by identifying minor ailments and providing evidence-based advice about treatment options. In the Netherlands, advice is based on national minor ailment guidelines and structured WWHAM questions (Who, What, How long, Action, Medication). Objectives: To study whether pharmacy assistants provide guideline-compliant advice for allergic rhinitis based on WWHAM and condition-specific questions (When and Familiarity) and their association with appropriate self-care advice. Methods: A retrospective study of the assessments of simulated patient (SP) visits regarding one condition- and two symptom-based cases of allergic rhinitis in Dutch community pharmacies. Pharmacies that participated in 2014, 2016 and 2018 were selected. SPs documented their observations of the problem analysis, dispensing and client interaction on a standardized scoresheet. Dispensing of an oral antihistamine according to the guideline recommendation was considered as the correct outcome. Chi-square tests were used to analyze differences in scores for problem analysis of pharmacies with correct and incorrect advice provision in 2014 and 2018. Predictors for correct outcome were identified by univariate and multivariate logistic regression analysis. Results: Data from 673 pharmacies were available for all three years. In 2014 and 2018, problems were presented as a symptom (running nose), and 41.2% and 21.1% of pharmacies dispensed an antihistamine. For the condition-based problem (allergy) in 2016, 96.0% of participating pharmacies dispensed an antihistamine. Both in 2014 and 2018, each additional problem analysis question increased the odds ratio of providing correct advice. Questions asked about ‘hay fever symptoms’, ‘medication’, ‘when symptoms occurred’, and ‘familiar symptoms’ were significant predictors of correct advice provision. Conclusions: Most pharmacies provided appropriate advice for a condition-based request but less than half of them provided appropriate advice for a symptom-based request. More questions asked was associated with an increased chance of providing correct advice. Addition of condition-specific questions may improve the WWHAM-method.

Objective: To examine the impact of standardized patient (SP) training on SPs' real-life healthcare encounters and explore whether SP training elements can be adapted to increase actual patients' understanding, communication and participation in a patient-centered care model., Methods: Data were collected from surveys and focus groups with standardized patients and a survey of primary care physicians. Findings were used to create an educational video with pre- and post-viewing surveys of patients' understanding of engagement strategies and plans to use them in future encounters., Results: SPs reported medical visits were more productive because of their ability to understand the visit's framework; crediting their SP training. Patients reported the video will help in planning future medical visits by providing information that increases their understanding of their role in the care process., Conclusions: SPs' understanding of the visit and its impact on knowledge, skills and affective domains can be transferred to patients in the form of specific strategies that enhance communication and patient participation during medical visits., Practice Implications: A brief educational intervention for patients using SPs' understanding of the medical visit may contribute to enhanced patient participation in future health care encounters and could increase patient engagement in patient-centered models of care., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest All authors are at are at the Frank H. Netter MD School of Medicine at Quinnipiac University. None of the 4 co-authors (Gabbriel Ceccolini, Mattel Rachel Kanevsky, Richard Feinn, Ingrid Philibert) declare any conflicts of interest or competing interests., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Resumen: Introducción: Durante la pandemia de la COVID-19 es necesario que los profesionales actualicen conocimientos, actitudes y habilidades para tratar la infección, y se protejan frente al contagio con suministros sanitarios limitados. Se describe el empleo estratégico de un centro de simulación para facilitar la adaptación de un servicio de salud a la pandemia. Métodos: Se analiza la experiencia de un centro de simulación en Cantabria, España. Un grupo de trabajo identifica y clasifica las necesidades en 3 áreas: 1) aprendizaje (categorizadas con un sistema de zonas para adaptar el diseño e implementación del entrenamiento a las necesidades específicas); 2) innovación (relacionadas con la práctica asistencial y el equipamiento sanitario); y 3) suministros sanitarios (que pueden fabricarse con las impresoras 3D disponibles en el centro de simulación para material docente). Resultados: Se implementan 3 tipos de actividades de entrenamiento: talleres de formación de formadores para protección frente a trasmisión por gota-contacto, simulaciones para la protección frente a contagio por aerosoles y un marco de trabajo para el análisis de las situaciones con pacientes reales.Se analizan máscaras de buceo para la asistencia ventilatoria, prototipos de ventiladores y técnicas para ventilar 2 pacientes con un ventilador.Se fabrican máscaras de protección facial, hisopos para la toma de muestras y horquillas para mascarillas. Conclusión: La participación estratégica de un centro de simulación puede promover y facilitar la adaptación de un sistema de salud a una epidemia por la COVID-19. Abstract: Introduction: During the COVID-19 pandemic professionals need to update the knowledge, attitudes and skills necessary to treat infected patients, and protect themselves against the transmission of the disease with limited medical supplies. The strategic use of a simulation center to facilitate the adaptation of a health service to the pandemic is described. Methods: The experience of a simulation center in Cantabria, Spain is analyzed. A working group identifies and classifies organizational needs into three areas: 1) learning (categorized with a zone system to tailor the design and implementation of training to specific needs); 2) innovation (related to healthcare practice and healthcare equipment); and 3) sanitary supplies (which can be manufactured with the 3D printers available in the simulation center for teaching materials). Results: Three types of simulation training activities are implemented: train the trainer workshops for protection against drop-contact transmission, simulations for protection against aerosol transmission and a framework for the analysis of real situations with patients.Diving masks for ventilatory assistance, techniques for ventilating two patients with one ventilator and prototype ventilators are analyzed.Facial protection masks, swabs and mask forks are printed. Conclusion: The strategic participation of a simulation center can promote and facilitate the adaptation of a health system to a COVID-19 pandemic.

Background and Purpose: The purpose of this study was to use the first three levels of the Kirkpatrick Model to evaluate the effectiveness of a simulation center-based escape room activity designed to positively influence student learning., Educational Activity and Setting: In this simulation, learners solve puzzles related to care of a critically ill patient. This activity was assessed via an assessment questionnaire (Kirkpatrick level 1), a pre/post learner knowledge quiz and learner self-assessment of skills and attitudes (Kirkpatrick level 2), and unstructured observation of learners upon return to the clinical environment (Kirkpatrick level 3)., Findings: Average learner knowledge assessment scores (Kirkpatrick level 2) improved from 80% (pre-) to 90.5% (post-) and learners identified an increased confidence in disease state diagnosis and expression of recommendations (Kirkpatrick level 2). Learner perception of the activity (Kirkpatrick level 1) was positive but also included areas for improvement. Anecdotal reporting supports learners transfer of the knowledge and skills reviewed in the session to practice (Kirkpatrick level 3), but no formal data collection or analysis was completed., Summary: This study provides quantitative and qualitative evidence to support effectiveness of the activity according to Kirkpatrick's Levels 1 and 2, and anecdotal evidence to support effectiveness according to Kirkpatrick's Level 3. Learners had positive perspectives of this activity and demonstrated evidence of increased knowledge and self-reported confidence in skills and attitudes, suggesting this activity has a positive impact on learners in the short-term; however, the data is not robust enough to support conclusions that this activity influences learner practice., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare no relevant conflicts of interest., (Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Objective: To examine the efficacy of a brief, online intervention designed to enhance genetic counseling students' patient-centered communication., Methods: Genetic counseling students and recent graduates were randomized to two groups following a baseline standardized patient (SP) session: (1) immediate intervention exposure, which consisted of five modules that taught patient-centered communication skills followed by a second SP session, or (2) delayed intervention exposure following completion of the second session. Sessions were coded using the Roter Interaction Analysis System. Short-term efficacy was assessed by comparing communication during the second session between the delayed and immediate intervention exposure groups. Longer-term efficacy was assessed by comparing communication during a third session approximately five weeks later., Results: During the second session, students in the immediate intervention exposure group (n = 18) used more emotionally responsive statements and were more likely to use teach-back than those in the delayed intervention exposure group (n = 23). Students' emotionally responsive statements decreased among the immediate intervention exposure group during the third session., Conclusion: Exposure to the intervention was associated with multiple, positive changes to students' patient-centered communication behavior., Practice Implications: These time- and resource-efficient modules may be beneficial as an introduction to communication skills training or a supplement to existing training., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest Debra Roter is the author of the Roter Interaction Analysis System (RIAS) and holds the copyright for the system. Johns Hopkins University also has rights to some enhancements of the system. Neither Debra Roter nor Johns Hopkins collects royalties for use of the system in research, as is the case for the current study. Debra Roter is also owner of RIAS Prime LLC, a company that provides consulting services related to doctor-patient communication and it is possible that the company may benefit indirectly from dissemination of the current research. The other authors declare no competing interests., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Objective: Our objective was to evaluate the outcome of a training program on long-term confidence of interns and attending physicians., Design: In this prospective cohort study, general surgery interns underwent a training program on informed consent that involved didactics, standardized patient encounters, and supplemental procedure specific guides at the start of the academic year. At the end of the academic year, we surveyed interns from the classes of 2020 (trained) and 2019 (untrained) about their experience and confidence in obtaining an informed consent. Further, we queried attending physicians on their experience and confidence in the interns at the end of each academic year., Setting: Single academic general surgery residency program based at 2 urban tertiary hospitals., Participants: General surgery interns including unmatched preliminary residents and categorical interns from general surgery, interventional radiology, and urology., Results: Twenty-four incoming interns participated in the training program. Intern confidence discussing operation benefits improved from a median score of 4 to 5 (p = 0.03), and total confidence improved from a median score of 15 to 17.5 (p = 0.08). There was no difference in median total confidence scores (15 vs. 17.5; p = 0.21) between classes. Attending physicians had similar median total confidence scores following intervention (10 vs. 11; p = 0.87). Intern satisfaction was 80% with the didactic session, and 90% with standardized patient encounters. Twenty percent of learners used the supplemental procedure specific guides., Conclusions: Implementation of an intern targeted program on informed consent that incorporated didactics and standardized patient encounters was viewed as useful and may contribute to long-term improvements in confidence., (Copyright © 2023. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Purpose: This study was conducted to explore and understand the experiences of nursing students related to psychiatric simulation using standardized patients and to identify the value of such simulations in relation to the psychiatric clinical practicum. Methods: This study was designed using qualitative research. Eleven undergraduate students were individually interviewed regarding their experiences with psychiatric nursing simulation. A thematic content analysis was conducted to derive themes from subthemes, which were derived from contents of the interview. Results: Four themes were derived from nine subthemes by means of thematic analysis of nursing students' experiences regarding psychiatric nursing simulation with standardized patients compared to clinical psychiatric nursing practicum. The topics studied included gaining practice without fear, gaining confidence in clinical practicum, being embarrassed by the gap and being in need of further simulation. Conclusion: Exploration of student responses comparing simulation and clinical practicum enhances integration of dichotomous experiences that bridge the theory-practice gap, which magnifies the benefits of the simulation.

Objectives: To assess whether men and women are evaluated and treated differently by medical students., Methods: We evaluated patient care provided by 110 fifth-year medical students during an objective structured clinical examination (OSCE), using two clinical cases with standardized patients (SPs): generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and ascending aortic dissection (AAD). Half of the students encountered male and half female SPs. Except for gender, the cases were identical. We compared diagnosis and treatment of male vs female SPs., Results: Students diagnosed GAD more often in female SPs than in male SPs (diagnosis completed, partially completed, and not completed in 47%, 16% and 36% respectively vs. 22%, 20%, and 58% for male SPs, p = 0.02). The nature of symptoms was better described for male SPs. For AAD, the emergency was more frequently identified and the examination of femoral pulses better performed in female SPs., Conclusion: Medical students have a gender bias when evaluating patients with GAD and AAD., Practice Implication: The observed gender bias in the evaluation of patients, likely leads to differences in treatment between male and female patients (i.e. under-recognition of anxiety in men). Medical schools should implement gender-sensitive medical education initiatives to improve inclusive patient care., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors have no conflict of interest to declare., (Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To provide a comprehensive and current overview of the evidence for the value of simulation for education, team training, patient safety, and quality improvement in obstetrics and gynaecology, to familiarize readers with principles to consider in developing a simulation program, and to provide tools and references for simulation advocates., Target Population: Providers working to improve health care for Canadian women and their families; patients and their families., Outcomes: Simulation has been validated in the literature as contributing to positive outcomes in achieving learning objectives, maintaining individual and team competence, and enhancing patient safety. Simulation is a well-developed modality with established principles to maximize its utility and create a safe environment for simulation participants. Simulation is most effective when it involves interprofessional collaboration, institutional support, and regular repetition., Benefits, Harms, and Costs: This modality improves teamwork skills, patient outcomes, and health care spending. Upholding prescribed principles of psychological safety when implementing a simulation program minimizes harm to participants. However, simulation can be an expensive tool requiring human resources, equipment, and time., Evidence: Articles published between 2003 and 2022 were retrieved through searches of Medline and PubMed using the keywords "simulation" and "simulator." The search was limited to articles published in English and French. The articles were reviewed for their quality, relevance, and value by the SOGC Simulation Working Group. Expert opinion from relevant seminal books was also considered., Validation Methods: The authors rated the quality of evidence and strength of recommendations using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) approach. See online Appendix A (Tables A1 for definitions and A2 for interpretations of strong and conditional [weak] recommendations)., Intended Audience: All health care professionals working to improve Canadian women's health, and relevant stakeholders, including granting agencies, physician/nursing/midwifery colleges, accreditation bodies, academic centres, hospitals, and training programs., (Copyright © 2023 The Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada/La Société des obstétriciens et gynécologues du Canada. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Introducción: Los cursos de Ginecología y Obstetricia se dictan en el penúltimo año de la carrera de Doctor en Medicina y representan el primer contacto curricular de los estudiantes con la disciplina. El perfil del egresado del plan de estudios vigente se orienta a la formación de medico generalista, por lo que el egresado debe ser competente en un numero básico de destrezas en el área ginecobstétrica. Objetivos: El objetivo del presente trabajo es introducir el uso de simuladores en la enseñanza del pregrado de ginecología y obstetricia. Metodología: En el transcurso del curso de ginecología del año 2003 los estudiantes fueron divididos en forma aleatorizada en dos grupos, uno de los cuales realizó su entrenamiento con simuladores. Se realizó un seguimiento del aprendizaje por medio de planillas de verificación. Resultados: De los resultados surge que los estudiantes del grupo que realizó su entrenamiento con simuladores tuvieron mas oportunidades de realizar las maniobras sobre todo aquellas que implican mayor dificultad como ser la colocación del especulo y el examen vaginal. Conclusiones: De acuerdo a esto se podría afirmar que la utilización de simuladores constituye una buena herramienta para la adquisición de destrezas en el área gineco obstétrica, y pueden ser una alternativa para la enseñanza a nivel del pregrado.Introduction: The courses in gynaecology and obstetrics are given during the seventh year of the medicine career and represent the students’ first contact with the discipline. Most graduates from our medical school eventually become GPs, so they must be trained in a number of basic skills in obstetrics and gynaecology. Aims: To introduce the use of medical simulators in undergraduate courses of obstetrics and gynaecology. Methodology: During the gynaecology course in the 2003 academic year, students were randomly divided into two groups. The experimental group did their training with medical simulators. Their learning was followed up using a checklist for pelvic examination. Results: The results show that the students that did their training with simulators had more opportunities to perform the manoeuvres, especially those involving greater difficulty like vaginal examination and "speculum" introduction. Conclusions: The use of medical simulators constitutes a good tool for the acquisition of skills in the obgyn area. Simulators provide a useful alternative in undergraduate education.

Background: Concerns regarding the burden of inappropriate opioid use are growing. We examined the association between prescription opioid abuse and patient characteristics and estimated the cost-effectiveness of the prescription drug monitoring program (PDMP) implemented in South Korea, considering patient-level information., Methods: A retrospective cohort study was conducted to explore the association between opioid abuse and patient characteristics using the National Health Insurance Service-National Sample Cohort (NHIS-NSC) database. We selected non-cancer patients with chronic opioid use and investigated the incidence of opioid abuse between 2010 and 2015. The association between opioid abuse and patient characteristics was assessed using the Cox proportional hazards model. The cost-effectiveness of the PDMP was assessed using discrete event simulation (DES) with a time horizon of 30 years from a societal perspective. Time-to-event data and event costs were obtained from the NHIS-NSC database. The abuse rate was adjusted for each patient based on the baseline characteristics and history of abuse experienced in the model. Program effectiveness, program costs, and health-state utilities were obtained from the published literature. The incremental cost-utility ratio (ICUR) was estimated at a discount rate of 5% for both costs and quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs)., Results: We identified 22,524 patients with chronic opioid use in the NHIS-NSC database. Every one-year increase in age (hazard ratio: 1.002 [95% CI: 1.000-1.003]), medical aid program (1.130 [95% CI: 1.072-1.191]), high Charlson Comorbidity Index (1.054 [95% CI: 1.044-1.065]), and history of opioid abuse (1.501 [95% CI: 1.391-1.620] and 3.005 [95% CI: 2.387-3.783] for 1-2 and ≥3 abuse events, respectively) significantly increased the risk of opioid abuse. In the DES, the PDMP was cost-effective, with an estimated ICUR of $2,227/QALY, which was most affected by the program's effectiveness., Conclusion: Patient characteristics and history of opioid abuse affected the risk of opioid abuse. Considering patient-level information, the PDMP implemented in South Korea is likely to be cost-effective., Competing Interests: Declarations of interests HSS and SK report grants from the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea government (Ministry of Science and ICT) and the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety., (Copyright © 2023. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Introduction: Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, many pedagogical activities shifted from in-person to virtual modalities, including standardized patient (SP) encounters. While many academic institutions may not have previously been conducting SP encounters virtually, this change provided student pharmacists with new opportunities to learn and practice telehealth techniques, which are important with the continuously evolving healthcare landscape., Methods: This retrospective study analyzed pharmacy student performance on and perceptions of SP cases in fall 2019 (in-person) and fall 2020 (telehealth) semesters. The primary objective was to compare average total scores on SP cases from fall 2019 (in-person) and fall 2020 (telehealth) for first-, second-, and third-year pharmacy students (P1, P2, and P3, respectively). Secondary objectives were to compare average scores from case-specific and relationship and communication (R&C) checklists, as well as to describe student perceptions of the pedagogy., Results: Total scores on SP cases decreased from in-person to telehealth for the average of all P1 SP cases, but not for P2 or P3 cases. Case-specific scores did not change, but R&C scores decreased significantly across all three years. Student survey data revealed difficulty with communicating effectively and building rapport via telehealth., Conclusions: Overall, student performance on in-person vs. telehealth SP encounters was similar, though P1 students performed more poorly on SP cases conducted via telehealth compared to P2 or P3 students. Thus, faculty could consider focusing on in-person encounters for early learners before introducing virtual encounters. This study also highlights the difficulty in establishing rapport when communicating with patients via telehealth., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest None., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: It is essential for health care professionals to display empathy when communicating with patients. Therefore, empathy is an important skill to teach health care professional students. The objective of this study was to examine the effect of a course enhancement consisting of formal instruction and application-based simulations on empathy in pharmacy students., Methods: The Jefferson Scale of Empathy for Health Profession Students (JSE-HPS) was administered at the start of the semester and again at the end of the 16-week required course for third-year pharmacy students. Differences in the mean scores were analyzed using a paired t-test. An inductive conventional content analysis approach was utilized to analyze end of the course reflections about empathy by two investigators., Results: On the pre-survey (n = 140), the empathy scores ranged from 86 to 140 (mean 113.8). On the postsurvey (n = 73), scores ranged from 93 to 137 (mean 117.5). A statistically significant increase in students' empathy scores on the JSE-HPS was observed following the completion of the course (P = .006). The main themes that emerged from the students' reflections were the impact of empathy on patient-centered care and the importance of patient-provider relationships. Students also discussed the development and use of empathy skills., Conclusions: A combination of didactic and skills-based training led to an improvement in empathy in third-year pharmacy students. Student comments highlighted the value of practicing empathy skills in a simulated environment., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest None., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: Medication reviews can reduce the geriatric risk of experiencing drug-related problems (DRPs), but medication review training programs in pharmacy education are infrequent and inconsistent. Data on education programs that practice DRP management skills and DRP prioritization should be collected as such training requires a tailored student evaluation at the DRP level., Methods: A geriatric patient medication review training was developed and implemented for eighth-semester pharmacy students. Students' DRP management skills were evaluated using audiotaped, 15-min simulated patient scenarios before and after the training using a newly developed algorithm (score 1-9, adequate management defined ≥7). The scenarios included 17 DRPs, five of which were identified as a high priority. Students rated their DRP management and knowledge by self-assessment before and after the training and supplied feedback about the training., Results: Student comprehension and handling of DRPs improved after the training. The median number of adequately managed DRPs increased from 4 to 7 (P = .001) and the median number of high-priority DRPs identified increased from 4 to 5 (P = .007). Students felt they improved their overall competency, DRP management, and knowledge, and 85% rated the training essential to their university education., Conclusions: This training provided students with an objective evaluation algorithm for complex patient simulations in elderly patients. The training improved students' DRP prioritization and management, providing a basic template for future geriatric medication review training programs., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest None., (Copyright © 2022. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Objective: To characterize medical interns' experience regarding communication skills education and to explore potential associations with preparedness for practice., Methods: Two hundred sixty-six medical interns answered an original questionnaire specifically developed to explore how well they feel their undergraduate training had prepared them in key aspects of medical communication. Instrument's psychometric properties were tested. Medical schools' curricula were considered and associations explored using non-parametric tests., Results: The questionnaire reliability was high, with Cronbach's alphas ranging from 0.89 to 0.94 on all the factors. Core communication skills were highly rated. Perceived preparedness was lower in aspects concerning dealing with emotion, breaking bad news and communicating with speech impaired patients. Better preparedness was associated with a longitudinal integration of communication skills throughout the curriculum, simulation with standardized patients and real patient interviewing with feedback on communication skills., Conclusions: Integrated programs, standing on a strong experimental component, particularly combining patient-simulation strategies with continuous supervision and learner centred feedback, were associated with higher preparedness. These results support the expansion of an educational model based on simulation strategies and structured longitudinally throughout the undergraduate medical curriculum., Practice Implications: This study intends to inform educational background and to support further development of communication skills curricula., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Objective: This study aimed to explore the value of interprofessional learning in developing interprofessional relationships, as perceived by medical students participating as simulated patients for chiropractic students., Methods: A cross-sectional study of university medical students, using an online survey and interview sessions, was conducted at the International Medical University, Malaysia, from July 2020 to October 2020. Only students who had previously participated as a simulated patient within a chiropractic examination setting were included; this involved interacting with chiropractic students in observed structured clinical examinations, including history taking, physical examination or motion palpation, and adjustment setups for end-of-semester examinations. Survey responses focused on themes of interprofessional learning, with values of reduction of prejudice, increase in understanding, and improved collaborative attitude. These responses were grouped as positive, neutral, or negative based on Likert scores. Interview responses were analyzed and categorized according to the survey themes., Results: Fifteen male medical students aged 23 to 26 years completed the questionnaire and interview. Respondents perceived that their experience helped clarify doubts on the scope of chiropractic (66.7%), the role of a chiropractor (80%), and chiropractic professional practices (80%). A majority of respondents (80%) felt that being a simulated patient increased their willingness to learn collaboratively with chiropractic students. Most (93.3%) responded positively to being more willing to work with other health care professionals., Conclusion: This study showed an overall positive perception among medical students of developing interprofessional relationships with chiropractors and other health care professionals. The results suggest that opportunities for interprofessional learning between chiropractic and other health care programs may assist with the long-term goal of promoting patient-centered care., (© 2021 by National University of Health Sciences.)

The simulated patient method is becoming increasingly popular in health services research to observe the behaviour of healthcare practitioners in a naturalistic setting. This method involves sending a trained individual (simulated patient among other names), who is indistinguishable from a regular consumer, into a healthcare setting with a standardised scripted request. This paper provides an overview of the method, a brief history of its use in health services research, comparisons with other methods, ethical considerations, and considerations for the development of studies using the simulated patient method in health services research, with examples from pharmacy and other fields. Methods of analysis, mixed-methods, and the use of simulated patients with feedback are also discussed., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: We sought to compare student performance on acute care advanced pharmacy practice experiences (APPEs) pre- and post-incorporation of mock acute care patient simulations into the curriculum., Methods: A series of mock acute care APPE simulations (MACAS) were developed and incorporated into Touro University California College of Pharmacy curriculum for first- and second-year pharmacy students. Results for student performance on Acute Care I and Acute Care II APPEs were collected for students who received none, one year, or two years of the MACAS. Student admission characteristics and didactic academic performance (grade point average [GPA]) were also gathered. Student characteristics and APPE performance were compared across cohorts of students who received none, one year, and two years of MACAS. Multivariate models were created to measure the impact of the MACAS while controlling for student characteristics., Results: The final cohort included 394 students. In unadjusted analyses, students with one or two years of MACAS received significantly higher preceptor acute care APPE evaluations for communication, professionalism, and patient scores vs. students who received no MACAS. In multivariate models controlling for age, gender, and undergraduate GPA, one year of MACAS increased student acute care APPE communication, professionalism, and patient care scores, relative to no MACAS. Similar increases in acute care APPE scores were seen for students who received two years of MACAS., Conclusions: MACAs significantly improved acute care APPE scores relative to students with no MACAS. This improvement in acute care APPEs occurred after students received a single year of MACAS., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Simulated patients (SPs) are widely used, but the most effective way of utilising them in undergraduate breaking bad news (BBN) medical education is unknown., Objectives: To conduct a systematic review into SP's use in developing BBN skills in medical students., Methods: 14 databases searched with the terms "Medical education", "Patient simulation", "Bad news". Data was systematically extracted, and thematic analysis undertaken., Results: Of 2117 articles screened, 29 publications met the inclusion criteria. These demonstrated a variety of SP models, including actors as patients (65.5%), peers (7.0%), and cancer survivors (3.5%). with delivery at varying times in the curricula. SPs are uniformly reported as having positive impact, but there is a lack of high-quality evidence comparing the use of differing forms of training. There was some evidence that virtual SPs were as useful as in-person SPs., Conclusions: SPs allow students to practise vital BBN communication skills without risking detriment to patient care. Despite the heterogeneity of ways in which SPs have been used, the benefits of different approaches and when and how these should be delivered remains unclear., Practice Implications: Further educational development and research is needed about the use of SPs to support undergraduate BBN communication skills development., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: Developing and validating a discrete event simulation model that is able to model patients with heart failure managed with usual care or an early warning system (with or without a diagnostic algorithm) and to account for the impact of individual patient characteristics in their health outcomes., Methods: The model was developed using patient-level data from the Trans-European Network - Home-Care Management System study. It was coded using RStudio Version 1.3.1093 (version 3.6.2.) and validated along the lines of the Assessment of the Validation Status of Health-Economic decision models tool. The model includes 20 patient and disease characteristics and generates 8 different outcomes. Model outcomes were generated for the base-case analysis and used in the model validation., Results: Patients managed with the early warning system, compared with usual care, experienced an average increase of 2.99 outpatient visits and a decrease of 0.02 hospitalizations per year, with a gain of 0.81 life years (0.45 quality-adjusted life years) and increased average total costs of €11 249. Adding a diagnostic algorithm to the early warning system resulted in a 0.92 life year gain (0.57 quality-adjusted life years) and increased average costs of €9680. These patients experienced a decrease of 0.02 outpatient visits and 0.65 hospitalizations per year, while they avoided being hospitalized 0.93 times. The model showed robustness and validity of generated outcomes when comparing them with other models addressing the same problem and with external data., Conclusions: This study developed and validated a unique patient-level simulation model that can be used for simulating a wide range of outcomes for different patient subgroups and treatment scenarios. It provides useful information for guiding research and for developing new treatment options by showing the hypothetical impact of these interventions on a large number of important heart failure outcomes., (Copyright © 2021 ISPOR–The Professional Society for Health Economics and Outcomes Research. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Community pharmacists acknowledge to have an important role in providing pharmaceutical care during preconception, pregnancy and lactation. However, pharmacists' knowledge and counseling regarding this topic is still insufficient. Hence, educational initiatives are urgently needed., Objectives: To assess the impact of a blended learning program ('intervention') on community pharmacists' barriers, knowledge, and counseling practice with regard to preconception, pregnancy and lactation., Methods: A pre-post study was performed in collaboration with 40 randomly selected pharmacies belonging to a large pharmacy chain in Belgium. All pharmacists employed in these pharmacies were eligible to participate in a blended learning program consisting of an e-learning and an on-site training day. Data were collected using online surveys, mystery shopping visits and pharmacy records. Pharmacy conversations were assessed on information gathering, dispensed product, and case-specific information. A retention knowledge test was completed 3-6 months after the intervention., Results: In total, 60 pharmacists completed the post-intervention surveys (response rate: 95%). The total number of barriers decreased after the intervention, while organizational barriers such as lack of privacy (73%) and lack of time (67%) became more prevalent. Pharmacists' short and long-term knowledge improved after the intervention (p ≤ 0.001), although knowledge declined again over time (p ≤ 0.001). During counseling, pharmacists more often spontaneously provided information about folic acid when dispensing a pregnancy test, and more often suggested the correct dose/dosage for the dispensed OTC-product against pregnancy-related nausea. However, poor information gathering, dosing errors and incomplete information were still observed., Conclusion: The blended learning decreased pharmacists' barriers and improved their short- and long-term knowledge, while counseling practice only partially improved. Hence, the blended learning was insufficient to enhance pharmacists' information gathering competences and to fully implement pharmaceutical care services with regard to preconception, pregnancy and lactation., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: The use of simulated patients (SPs) in pharmacy practice research has become an established method to observe practice. The reliability of data reported using this method in comparison to pharmacy staff self-reported behaviour has yet to be ascertained., Objective: To compare the inter-rater agreement of pharmacy staff and SP-reported data to researcher-reported data from audio recordings of SP encounters., Methods: A dataset of 352 audio-recorded SP encounters was generated in March-October 2015 by 61 undergraduate pharmacy students completing SP visits to 36 community pharmacies in Sydney, Australia. Post-visit scores were recorded on data collection forms by SPs. Staff completed self-assessments on identical forms immediately after the encounter. Two-hundred-and-seventy visits were randomly selected as the sample for this study, where the researcher independently scored encounters via audio recordings. Inter-rater agreement was calculated through intra-class correlation (ICC) and weighted kappa analyses., Results: Analysis of staff scores returned ICC values of 0.48 (95% CI:0.38-0.56; p < 0.001) for information gathering and 0.63 (95% CI:0.55-0.70; p < 0.001) for total score. Weighted kappa for information rating was 0.30 (95% CI:0.21-0.38; p < 0.001) and 0.43 (95% CI:0.34-0.51; p < 0.001) for overall outcome. ICC values for SPs were 0.91 (95% CI:0.88-0.93; p < 0.001) and 0.90 (95% CI:0.87-0.92; p < 0.001) for information gathering and total scores respectively. Weighted kappa values were 0.44 (95% CI:0.37-0.52; p < 0.001) for information rating and 0.63 (95% CI:0.55-0.70; p < 0.001) for overall outcome., Conclusion: Pharmacy staff self-reported their behaviour with a poor degree of reliability. Conversely, SPs had a high level of agreement with the researcher scoring from audio recordings. Disagreement for both groups of raters was most apparent in rating the information provided and overall appropriateness of outcome. Future research should investigate this discrepancy between staff-reported behaviour and actual behaviour and consider the implications of this discrepancy in the interpretation of self-reported data., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Overdose from opioid abuse is an increasing cause of mortality worldwide. Emergency department nurses experience barriers when caring for patients with illicit opioid use. Motivational interviewing (MI) may help address these barriers., Methods: A one-group pretest-posttest design was used to investigate the impact of an eight-hour MI training workshop for 39 emergency department nurses at a community hospital. Audio-recorded interviews of nurses with standardized patients were assessed before, immediately after, and three to five months after training. Proficiency was assessed using the Motivational Interviewing Treatment Integrity 4.2.1., Results: Paired t-test analysis found statistically significant technical score increases from 2.20 (SD = 0.64) to 2.51 (SD = 0.52, p = 0.02) but not in relational scores, 2.04 (SD = 0.59) to 2.46 (SD = 0.53, p = 0.06), during the immediate pretest-posttest period. At follow-up, proficiency in MI was unattained and both technical (2.35, SD = 0.61, p = 0.49) and relational scores regressed (2.08, SD 0.74, p = 0.19)., Conclusions: Although short-term improvements in technical scores were observed, proficiency in MI was not attained and skills regressed over time. This suggests that a one-day training session may be inadequate. On-going coaching and supervision may be beneficial to maintain MI skills., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background and Purpose: Research indicates that the simulated learning tools known as virtual patients (VPs) are valued by pharmacy students and impact students' knowledge and confidence. However, research is needed to understand how students can be supported to make intended connections between VP cases and real-life clinical scenarios. The purpose of this study was to examine whether and how VP cases influence students' clinical reasoning skills, confidence, thought processes, and preparedness for their experiential practicums., Educational Activity and Setting: Third-year entry-to-practice doctor of pharmacy students who had completed at least one VP case in second year prior to their experiential practicums were surveyed in fall 2018 after having completed their experiential practicums. Surveys were structured to solicit student perceptions related to how students bridged VP cases and real-life clinical scenarios and were analyzed using a mixed-methods design., Findings: Forty-three students completed the survey. Students perceived that VP cases most significantly impacted their clinical reasoning skills due to the opportunity cases afforded them to explore patient data and navigate relevant information. The largest limitation of VP cases to students' learning was that the cases differed from their experiences. Students' suggestions included opportunities for more practice using VP cases and an expanded repertoire of medical conditions offered through case exposure., Summary: More research is needed to understand how to help students connect VP cases to their experiential practicums to make them more effective learning tools., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest None., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Implicit bias is prejudice shown towards an individual or group without consciously meaning to do so. This bias may occur due to age, race, and gender among other factors. Implicit bias has been examined and identified in a variety of health care professionals, primarily using Implicit Association Tests. To date, literature has not examined implicit bias using covert simulated patients in a naturalistic setting, or in practicing community pharmacists., Objective: To develop and pilot a novel method for exploring and reporting on implicit racial bias by community pharmacists in their practice setting., Methods: Four female actors of different racial and ethnic backgrounds (Caucasian Australian, East Asian, Middle Eastern, South Asian) completed simulated patient visits at eight community pharmacies in Sydney, Australia between February-March 2019. Actors provided scripted requests for assistance with symptoms or products relating to women's health ailments (cystitis, dysmenorrhea, emergency contraception, vaginal thrush) at a rate of one visit per pharmacy per week. Visits were audio-recorded. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with actors immediately post-visit. Transcriptions of visits and interviews were analyzed through discourse analysis., Results: Thirty-two vists were completed. Discourse analysis identified 3 discursive frames of 'caring', 'neutral, and 'abrupt' and enabled identification of potential differences between pharmacists when responding to actors of different racial and ethnic backgrounds. Consultation length, number of products sold, and number of questions asked did not significantly differ between visits., Conclusions: This novel method proved feasible and future work could adapt this method to different practitioners and simulated patient demographics to explore different types of implicit bias in a number of naturalistic settings., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: To determine whether immersive virtual patient simulation (IVPS) on the MedicActiv platform is influential in improving student academic performance in module validation tests., Design: In this prospective randomized controlled study a comparison was made between IVPS training combined with regular faculty courses versus courses alone. The primary endpoint was module validation grades. Secondary endpoints were satisfaction scores (overall interest, ergonomics, realism, immersion, and training efficiency)., Setting: Angers School of Medicine, France., Participants: 2018 to 2019 class of fourth-year students, included on a voluntary basis. In the first semester 51 students were included, of whom 13 were excluded for lack of compliance (6 and 7 from the IVPS and control groups, respectively). In the second semester we included 57 students, of whom 10 were excluded for lack of compliance (2 and 8 from the IVPS and control groups, respectively)., Results: Mean age was 21 years (±0.8). There were 85 female and 23 male students. In the first semester mean grades were 13.4 ± 1.6 versus 11/.9 ± 2.4 in the IVPS and control groups, respectively (p = 0.038). In the second semester mean grades were 15.3 ± 2.5 versus 11.9 ± 3.6 in the IVPS and control groups, respectively p < 0.001. The entire study population was pooled (n = 85): mean grades were 14.5 ± 2.4 versus 11.9 ± 3 in the IVPS group and the control group, respectively, p < 0.001. The satisfaction questionnaire response rate was 54% (46/85). Score percentages ≥4 regarding overall interest, ergonomics, realism, immersion and training efficiency were 89%, 85%, 100%, 93%, and 93% respectively., Conclusions: Complementing conventional university education with simulation of virtual consultation cases on the MedicActiv platform improved student academic performance as compared with students studying regular courses. Students reported high levels of satisfaction with overall interest, ergonomics, realism, immersion and training efficiency on the MedicActiv platform., (Copyright © 2020 Association of Program Directors in Surgery. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)