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Obesity is a chronic disease and an increasing problem globally. The prevalence is increasing in all ages—children, adolescents, and adults—and is now considered an epidemic. Obesity affects almost all physiological functions of the body and has major health consequences including, but not limited to, mental health, cancer, cardiovascular disorders, and musculoskeletal disorders. All the above have negative effects on the individual, the economy, the quality of life, and work productivity.

Obesity is a global, complex, multifactorial, and generally preventable disease. The global prevalence of obesity has doubled in the past 40 years regardless of sex, age, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status. Today, more than one-third of the world’s population is classified as obese or overweight. If this trend continues, researchers estimate that by 2030, this number will surpass 50%.

With advances in manufacturing and global trade, mass-produced refined foods have globally increased in prevalence. Additionally, our understanding of neurobiological models of addiction has improved due to more advanced computation and neuroimaging technology. The analysis of the neurobiological and clinical frameworks for the consumption of refined foods has led to the exploration of addiction to refined foods and its association with the rise in global obesity.

Obesity is a multifactorial disease with personal, environmental, genetic, and social influences. While at its core obesity results from an excess of energy intake compared to output, the complex relationship between variables leading to both individual and population-level obesity should be better understood through an environmental lens. The way one interacts with the environment is critical to development, and understanding which factors are within one’s control can help guide personal and policy initiatives. Several neighborhood-level factors have been shown to be associated with obesity, such as food availability and safety. Environmental factors within the home have also been shown to influence dietary choices, physical activity, and obesity rates. In this chapter, we will depict the environmental factors related to the obesity epidemic.

Obesity is a condition that arises from multiple factors and results in multiple consequences. A useful model for framing the spectrum of obesity epidemiology research can be found in Kim and Popkin (2006). In this multilevel framework, overweight and obese lie in the middle as the product of many different potential causes and as a cause of many different potential health consequences. Designing research that accurately characterizes the nature of this extremely complex and chronic yet dynamic condition can be a challenging task. This chapter serves as an overview of the major research methods encountered in obesity research and common problems that researchers must be aware of in study design and interpretation.

Multiple large cross-sectional epidemiological studies have demonstrated the presence of an association between obesity and mental health disorders, including depression, anxiety, eating disorders, and substance abuse. This association has been seen for both adults and children in the United States and around the world. However, much work is still being done to further understand and elucidate this relationship. This chapter aims to describe the psychosocial contributions and consequences of obesity.

According to recent studies on the trends of BMI worldwide, the prevalence of obesity has doubled in more than 80 countries since 1980. Moreover, nearly every country—excluding parts of sub-Saharan Africa and Asia—has observed an increase in obesity every year since 1975. Worldwide, 10.8% of adult males and 14.8% of adult females have obesity. Overall, this represents 3.4- and 2.3-fold increases in obesity in adult males and females, respectively, in 40 years. However, these trends are heterogeneous across countries with regard to the steepness of increase. The prevalence of a BMI ≥ 30 varies by country from 58% in the Micronesian island of Nauru. This wide range reflects the economic, environmental, ethnic, and social differences throughout the world. Moreover, the tabulation of the prevalence of obesity in each country is not conducted annually, as in the United States and other high-income countries. As a result, this chapter will focus on the trends of obesity in the United States and other affluent countries—defined in this chapter as the top 25 countries according to gross national income.

The global obesity epidemic is worsening around the world and unless major interventions take place, the implications will be ominous. As stated previously, the prevalence of overweight and obesity is increasing, not only in the United States but also globally. Apart from tobacco, obesity is likely the biggest threat to collective health in America. Globally, it has a major health impact and the effects on individuals, communities, and nations are lasting not just today but for future generations as well.

Background Maxillomandibular fixation (MMF) is an important tool in the treatment of facial fractures and bone-anchored arch bar systems have emerged as treatment options. This study illustrates our experience with the Synthes MatrixWAVE MMF system and the novel application in closed treatment of patients with multiple concurrent mandibular fractures. Methods We enrolled eight patients with concurrent mandibular fractures and treated them with the MatrixWAVE MMF system. The malleable arch bars were fitted and then secured using 6–8 mm screws. The arch bar was and either stretched or compressed to ensure optimal positioning. 24-gauge interdental fixation wiring was placed using the fish loop technique on either side of the fracture to achieve stabilization of the mandible fractures. Results All eight patients were retained in MMF until stable occlusion was achieved with clinical evidence of healing, approximately 4–6 weeks. Post-operative Panorex scans did not reveal any evidence of damage to tooth roots. None of the screws became overly embedded in the mucosa secondary to overgrowth; the arch bars were successfully removed in an outpatient setting without local anesthesia. Conclusions The Synthes MatrixWAVE MMF system has unique features such as prominent screw anchor heads and horizontal malleability unique from other bone anchored arch bars. These features allow for completely closed treatment of patients with multiple concurrent mandible fractures.