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Nowadays, electroanalytical methods are widely used in nanotechnological applications. They have unique features such as sensitivity, selectivity, rapid response, requirement of low volume of solutions and easy usage. Unlike other analytical methods such as high-performance liquid chromatography which require complicated and strict pretreatment processes, electroanalytical methods can provide accurate and sensitive results without any pretreatment thus, cost of analysis is reduced. Quantum dots (QDs) are modern nanomaterials that are mostly used in the analysis of drug and biological molecules. They possess excellent optical, chemical, mechanical, and physical properties due to their dot structures. In this chapter, the electrochemical methods which are used with QD nanomaterials for the analysis of pharmaceuticals and biomarkers are discussed in detail with literature samples. Voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy are widely used and mostly applied techniques. Electrochemical methods offer an alternative to the more expensive and require specialist chromatographic methods.

Today, biotechnological process applications are frequently used by an increasing importance in terms of industry and research. One of the natural consequences of scientific advances is the provision of more rapid progression by the effects on several scientific fields. Therefore, the rapid introduction of biotechnological processes into our daily lives leads to the development of new experimental tools (imaging methods and metabolic engineering), universal methods of analysis (genomics, proteomics, and metabolomics), and bioinformatics, which are able to respond rapidly to the needs and become more responsive. In this chapter, it is tried to define the bioprocess monitoring and analytical methods for bioprocesses with their measurement principles. Moreover, biologically varying sensors that are used in biomass monitoring and biomass concentration analysis are also defined. Turbidity sensors and impedance sensors, cell morphology analysis, in situ microscope systems, metabolic activity analysis, etc., are also stated. Current challenges with some novel examples are also shared.

Infectious diseases are caused from pathogens, which need a reliable and fast diagnosis. Today, expert personnel and centralized laboratories are needed to afford much time in diagnosing diseases caused from pathogens. Recent progress in electrochemical studies shows that biosensors are very simple, accurate, precise, and cheap at virus detection, for which researchers find great interest in this field. The clinical levels of these pathogens can be easily analyzed with proposed biosensors. Their working principle is based on affinity between antibody and antigen in body fluids. The progress still continues on these biosensors for accurate, rapid, reliable sensors in future.

Nanomaterials have great interest in nowadays. Especially, mostly electrochemical studies involve nanomaterials for the design of sensitive sensors. Selective, rapid, cheap and reliable sensors are very important for assay of any biomolecule, pharmaceutical, nucleic, or pathogens. Clinical and industry fields need these nanosensors with prevent time consuming and experienced personnel requirement. With progress on nanotechnology, small and portable equipment have been produced for easy usage. Therefore nanomaterial-based sensors have been studied excessively. Metal-, carbon-, and polymer-based nanomaterials are mostly preferred for sensor design due to their excellent features, such as high surface area, high mechanical and physical strength, high conductivity, and easy functionalized structures. Pharmaceutical analysis by well-designed nanosensors has gained great interest by researchers using electrochemical methods. In this chapter, design and fabrication of carbon-, metal-, and polymer-based nanomaterials have been presented. Recent studies of pharmaceutical analysis with these sensors have been summarized.

Biosensors are utilized greatly in fields such as diagnostics and patient monitoring in health care, quality control, and quality assurance in the food industry and detection of environmental pollutants. This is mainly because of the rapid, reliable, low-cost, and user-friendly detection capabilities of biosensors. To add, the integration of nanomaterials into biosensors to create a brand new area of nanobiosensors for even higher sensitivity and stability in detection has opened yet another gate for the market flow. Biosensors, all from the “macro” to the “nano” scale, got through the rippled path from scientific research to the market shelves with a fair speed throughout the past half-century. It is clear that the immense attention that biosensors and nanobiosensors get will provide a further leap in the mentioned fields. This chapter presents a summary of commercial biosensors and nanobiosensors that have been and are currently available in the market. The summary is sectioned as nanotechnological advances in biosensors and the current state of the global nanobiosensor market and biosensors that are present for clinical use, food, and environmental industry. A brief historical extraction on the biosensors market and forecast estimations are given with commercially available examples in each section. With further understanding of the gap between the research developments and the market state of biosensors and especially nanobiosensors, another milestone in commercialization for clinical use, food, and environmental industries could easily be achieved.

Molecular imprinting is a method used to prepare synthetic polymers with selective recognition sites for the molecule of interest. For drug analyses, the molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) should have high specificity toward one substance in order to allow for fingerprinting. Because the majority of drugs act as inhibitors of enzymes, antagonists of chemoreceptors, and binders to nucleic acids, the MIPs should mimic their binding pockets. In this way, drugs can be analyzed using the binding–rebinding strategy of the MIP-based nanosensor. In addition to low-molecular-weight drugs, MIPs have been synthesized for peptides and protein biomarkers, including enzymes and nucleic acids. Modifications of the surface of the transducer by nanomaterials exploit the unique physical and chemical properties in order to improve the analytical performance of the biomimetic sensors. Metal-based nanomaterials, such as gold, platinum, and silver, or carbon-based nanomaterials, or inorganic nanomaterials, such as titanium dioxide, are the most common nanomaterials for the design of nanosensors based on molecularly imprinted polymers. In this chapter, nanosensor design using molecularly imprinted polymers is discussed in detail. Moreover, the application of nanomaterials-modified MIPs for pharmaceutical analysis are presented.

The signals at the electrode-solution interface of an electrochemical nanosensor may either be dynamic or static. For dynamic methods, such as amperometric-based nanosensors that measure current proportional to the concentration of the analyte, the electroactive center of the species transfers electrons through a redox reaction at the working electrode, while in static methods the potentiometric mode of operation is followed in which charged species are involved. Nanoparticles and semiconductors have been shown to enhance the catalytic properties of analytical reactions by decreasing the overpotential of the reaction and facilitating faster electron transfer reactions, even conferring reversibility to some reactions reported to be irreversible at the unmodified electrode surfaces. Because all analytes are not intrinsically capable of serving as redox partners in electrochemical reactions, so mediators are used in these devices for facilitating the electrochemical reaction of the analytes at the electrode surface. The current chapter presents an overview of nanomaterials that affect sensing performance. Due to the attractive properties of materials at nanoscale dimensions, medical and pharmaceutical nanotechnology has become one of the most fascinating research topics in the fabrication and development of nanobiosensors. The morphology, geometric shape, and structural dimensions of materials at the nanoscale provide several advantages, which significantly influence the transduction ability of nanomaterial-modified electrodes.

Noble metals are resistant to corrosion and oxidation in moist air. Ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, osmium, iridium, platinum, and gold are a list of noble metals, in order of their respective atomic numbers. The unique characteristics of noble metal nanoparticles (NPs), such as high surface-to-volume ratio, broad optical properties, ease of synthesis, and facile surface chemistry and functionalization, guarantees advantages in drug analysis. The most used NPs are gold (Au) and silver (Ag) due to their electrical, chemical, optical, and other unique properties. Electrochemical methods have proven to be sensitive and reliable for the determination of numerous electroactive compounds. Under certain circumstances, electrochemical methods can offer optimal solutions for drug analysis. Simplicity, low cost, and relatively short analysis times make electrochemical techniques more useful for routine analytical applications. In this chapter, NPs and their various applications in electrochemical drug analysis are presented.

Nanotechnology is an expanding field, especially in engineering, physics, chemistry, biology, and medicine. Nanotechnology is unique in that it signifies not a single specific area, but a vast variety of disciplines ranging from basic material science to personal care applications. The application of nanotechnology to drug delivery is commonly expected to change the landscape of the drug and biotechnology industries for the foreseeable future. Moreover, nano-sized drug delivery systems have already had a great impact on pharmaceutical technology by improving the effect of drugs and enabling new therapies. Nanoparticles used in drug delivery are nano-sized in at least one dimension and consist of different materials. Based on the application of the preparations, there are varied forms of nanoparticles that have been synthesized and evaluated to improve drug bioavailability, overcome drug resistance, and reduce drug toxicity. To achieve effective drug delivery, it is essential to understand the biological environment–nanoparticle interaction, drug release from nanoparticles, multiple drug administration, and the stability of therapeutic agents and molecular mechanisms of cell behavior in the disease under consideration. Due to their tremendous properties, nanoparticles have been utilized to treat a variety of diseases and disorders by their attachment to biologically active molecules, targeting sequences, fluorescent or other imaging devices, biocompatible coatings, and others.

Sensors are devices that detect a physical, chemical, or biological stimulus and give a response in the form of a measurable signal. The increasing number of applications for sensing technologies has increased the need for the development of a variety of new sensors with far better performance. Nanoparticles are at the forefront in the fabrication of high-throughput nanosensors for applications ranging from pharmaceuticals to signature nano-based platforms that profile different therapeutic drugs, selective chemicals, and bioassays to environmental analysis by modifying the surface of the electrode for electrochemical detection, offering high sensitivity and selectivity. In this chapter, we will discuss the sensing enhancement impact of a number of nanoparticles, including metals, oxides, and semiconductor-based nanoparticles, mostly employing carbon-based nanoparticles (CNTs, graphene, fullerenes, carbon nanodots, nanowires, and nanodiamonds), dendrimers, and composite nanoparticles on multiple sensors, such as electrochemical, optical, and photoelectrochemical sensors. Moreover, this chapter will offer an introduction to recent developments in the design of nanosensors for trace-level multidrug detection with reproducible results. The ability of electrodes modified with nanomaterials for multianalyte screening and rapid toxicity testing will also be discussed. Moreover, owing to the unique oxidation or reduction potential of every drug, the selectivity of electrochemical sensing platforms based on nanomaterials for the detection of drugs and their metabolites will be highlighted.

Over the last decades, increasing consumer awareness of relation between health and plant products has driven the functional and medicinal beverages industry to put much effort into products with botanically fortified ingredients. The addition of botanical products requires high-level knowledge of chemistry to prevent the interactions and safety problems. Analyses of functional beverages and medicinal beverages with botanical products can be achieved through different kinds of analytical methods such as electrochemical, chromatographic, spectrophotometric, etc. This chapter focuses on the functional and medicinal beverages fortified by the botanical substances and their potential health benefits. Moreover, in this chapter, recent studies were summarized from the viewpoint of analysis conditions, sample preparation, and validation parameters.

The history of imaging dates back to 1895, with the invention of X-rays in 1895 by Conrad Rontgen and was first used to visualize a tumor by Franz Konig. In the 20th and 21st centuries, the field of imaging has been developing rapidly. Ultrasonography was another fundamental step in oncology imaging. This was followed by computed tomography (CT) scanning and continued by magnetic resonance approaches. Recently, more functional methods have been developed, such as positron emission tomography (PET) and hybrid techniques: PET/CT, PET/magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and whole-body diffusion-weighted imaging. With the aid of imaging biomarkers, these techniques can be enhanced for visualizing cancer at earlier stages. Future directions in this field may focus on the adopting of both anatomical, molecular, and functional techniques and developing target-specific biomarkers. Within the progress of imaging techniques, living organisms can be visualized, characterized, and quantificated in cellular and molecular levels. Imaging systems can be classified according to the energy source used for obtaining visual information (X-rays, positrons, photons, or sound waves); the spatial resolution that is utilized (macroscopic, mesoscopic or microscopic); or the type of information that is attained (anatomical, physiological, cellular or molecular). In this chapter, anatomical and functional approaches will be firstly described. The prevalently used macroscopic imaging systems in preclinical and clinical applications—CT, MRI and ultrasound—and recently emerging molecular imaging systems—PET, single-photon emission CT, and hybrid technologies—will be described. Novel technologies such as bioluminescence imaging, near-infrared fluorescence, and photoacoustic imaging will also be explained.

In vitro drug release testing is an important tool in drug development; it facilitates comparing the performance of different formulations and enables choosing the most suitable formulation. Polymeric nanoparticles (NPs), such as poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid), chitosan, poly(methyl methacrylate), etc., are colloidal systems that have been the focus of extensive investigations. Biomedical applications of polymeric NPs have been considered in numerous areas of medicine, due to their ability to control drug release and distribution, as well as their biodegradability. Especially for poorly water-soluble drug incorporated NPs, drug release study design affects release time and sink conditions. For drug-loaded polymeric NPs, pharmacopoeial dissolution apparatuses are not commonly used, due to unsuitability of both the paddle and basket apparatus. Nonuniform hydrodynamics and fluctuations in the dissolution rate measurements limit dissolution tests. Due to lack of an official test, some methods using orbital shaker, magnetic stirrer, and flow-through cell, etc., with or without dialysis bag, are offered. In this chapter, commonly used methods for polymeric NP drug release studies are explained from the view point of NP characteristics, dissolution medium, apparatus, and biomedical applications.

Quantum dots (QDs) are semiconductor nanomaterials with a diameter typically in the range of 1–10 nm. QDs have attracted great interest during the last decades mostly due to their unique optical characteristics, photostability, higher quantum yields, tunable size-dependent emissions, and biocompatibility. In addition, QDs can also exhibit sharp and well-peak shapes with stripping electrochemical responses of compounds. QDs were proposed as luminescent biological labels at the beginning, but now they are finding new important areas of application in analytical chemistry because their photoluminescent properties have been exploited in environmental monitoring, pharmaceutical and clinical analysis, and food quality control. To date, chromatography, spectrophotometry, capillary electrophoresis, UV–visible, and Infrared (IR) spectroscopy methods have been applied to the determination of pharmaceuticals. Electrochemical methods can be used as powerful analytical techniques that have utility in the pharmaceutical industry. Electrochemical methods have important advantages due to high sensitivity, reliability, time-efficient, no pretreatment steps, and reduction in solvent and sample consumption, low operating cost, high-speed analysis, and they can be easily miniaturized and integrated with respect to other analytical methods. The aim of this chapter is to overview and highlight recent studies on electroanalytical applications on pharmaceuticals and biomedical involving the utilization of QDs.

Foodborne diseases have become a major public health problem worldwide in recent years and are generally caused by the consumption of food or drink contaminated with pathogens or toxins. Common foodborne bacterial pathogens include Escherichia coli O157:H7, Shiga-toxin producing E. coli, Campylobacter jejuni, Clostridium perfringens, Salmonella enterica, Bacillus cereus, Listeria monocytogenes, and Yersinia. Early screening for foodborne pathogens plays an important role in preventing and controlling outbreaks of foodborne diseases. For this reason, a lot of effort has been directed into the study and development of rapid testing methods for foodborne pathogens. There are a lot of conventional methods for the determination of foodborne pathogens such as culture-based methods, immunological-based reactions, and polymerase chain reaction. These conventional methods are time consuming, exhaustive, and expensive. Biosensor design is an important foodborne pathogen detection method that is sensitive, rapid, and low-cost. This study is focused on the methods used to immobilize biological components to generate biosensors, applications of the most commonly used electrochemical and optical biosensors, and recent prospects for foodborne pathogen detection and determination.

Pesticides involving fungicides, herbicides, and insecticides are widely used in most food production to control pests (e.g., insects, fungi, rodents, worms, and herbs) that would otherwise destroy or reduce food production. In the area of agriculture, the usage of insecticides, herbicides, molluscicides, and fungicides has an increasing importance. Pesticides might be harmful as well as have beneficial effects. Pesticides may also be nonbiodegradable, so they persist in the environment and may accumulate in living organisms. Many pesticides are toxic property, so they can be dangerous to health. Some health problems can occur, such as bone marrow disorders, carcinogenicity, infertility, cytogenic effects, neurological diseases, and immunological and respiratory problems. Hence, food control is very important and necessary for living organisms. To date, many methods have been applied to determine pesticide residues in food samples. Electrochemical method is one of the analytical methods which can provide sensitive, reliable, short analysis time, and no pretreatment steps can be easily miniaturized and integrated with respect to other analytical methods. In this chapter, to control pesticides in food samples, developed modern electrochemical methods were given with new, sensitive, and selective sensors.

Study on DNA damage has received more and more attention, due to its relation to cancer, aging and neurological diseases. The DNA damage may result from hydrolytic deamination, alkylating agents, free radicals and reactive oxygen species formed by various photochemical processes including UV radiation. Like other chemical carcinogens, nanomaterials may cause cancer via oxidative DNA damage. The development of novel engineered nanomaterials has been of importance for the industry, owing to the beneficial physico-chemical features they offer, some of which include improved electrical and/or thermal conductivity. Also, nanomaterials have improved optical properties and catalytic activity. Recently, human exposure to nanomaterials is already occurring and is set to increase dramatically. However, due to their small size as well as the novel physico-chemical properties may also be responsible for adverse biological effects. Moreover, the limited information that is gradually arising does indicate that nanomaterials induce oxidative stress, cytotoxicity and inflammatory responses. The DNA damage is usually detected by separation techniques such as electrophoresis, liquid chromatography and electrochemical technique. In this chapter, the DNA damage induced by various nanomaterials will be assessed in terms of DNA damage products, types and detections techniques.

Analytical methods that are used in the processing of food must assure the quality and safety of the final product. In all areas of food quality and safety, it is necessary to have reliable analytical methods for use in determining chemical and biological hazards that are concordant with national regulations and international requirements. The reliability of a method is determined by validation results, where specificity, accuracy, precision, limit of detection and determination, and sensitivity and applicability are reported. There exist some comities and guidelines, judge for validation parameters such as the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point Principles and Application Guidelines, Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs), Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC). According to CAC, a method of analysis to be included in a Codex commodity standard, certain method performance information should be available. Validation of a method can be achieved in three steps: identification of appropriate and necessary validation parameters, design of experiments for parameter evaluation, determination of acceptance criteria. In this chapter, the method validation and their acceptance criteria for the quality and safety of food and validation of analytical methods for the assay of food samples are discussed.

An estimated 10,000 DNA damage events occur every day in a single cell due to exposure to genotoxic substances that are endogenously produced or are of environmental origin. Mutations play a significant role in the initiation of cancer and in other stages of the carcinogenic process. Oxidative stress, which is the oxidation of biomolecules by reactive oxygen species, has been strongly correlated to degenerative diseases, especially cancer. Therapeutic foods, such as vitamins, carotenoids, flavonoids, and phenolic acids are gaining attention as they are believed to protect against degenerative disorders (i.e., cardiovascular disease and cancer). This chapter discusses and evaluates the potential protective activity of therapeutic foods on DNA damage. The chapter is subdivided into the various therapeutic foods and a discussion of the assay strategies employed for the detection of DNA damage.

Nanobiodevices are analytical devices for the analysis, detection, quantification, or monitoring of pharmaceuticals. Nanobiodevices have gained a great deal of importance, due to their advantages in terms of response speed, low cost, portability, small sample and reagent consumption, and low energy requirements. The combination of sensing molecules that are in part biorecognition, and part transducer is the main aspect of biosensors. The choice of suitable matrix, monitoring/quantifying the interactions between the analytes, and the biorecognition part is very important in designing biosensors. In this chapter, nanobiodevices for electrochemical biosensing of pharmaceuticals related to different biorecognition parts, such as enzymes, DNA, tissues, bacteria, yeast, antibodies, antigens, liposomes, and organelles will be discussed. Nanobiodevices, such as lab-on-a-chip platforms in biosensors, and their applications in pharmaceutical analysis will also be discussed.

Dermal drug application is commonly used for the local treatment of skin diseases. However, the uppermost layer of the skin, stratum corneum, plays an effective role as a physical barrier against to the penetration of compounds into skin. The physicochemical properties of the active agents and vehicles are major limiting factors for the skin penetration of the drugs. In recent years, nanoparticulate drug delivery systems, especially lipid nanoparticles, attract considerable interest in providing enhanced skin penetration and to ensure site-specific skin targeting of drugs. Solid-lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers and lipid nanocapsules are manufactured using biocompatible and biodegradable lipids that have various advantages for dermal administration, such as controlled release of active agents, increasing the chemical stability of sensitive drugs, enhancing the penetrated amount of active substances into skin, and drug targeting to different skin layers. In this chapter, an overview of lipid-based nanoparticles as dermal drug delivery systems will be presented, preparation techniques and in vitro/in vivo characterization methods of lipid nanoparticles and their assays will be reviewed. Analytical studies related to the drug-loaded lipid nanoparticles, their characterization, and quantitation are also discussed and summarized as details.