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Background and purpose: It remains challenging to implement and sustain Interprofessional Training Units (ITUs) for equipping health professional students with competencies that are essential for providing collaborative patient-centered care. In this qualitative study, we aimed to identify types of motivation of IPE tutors, the factors that influence their motivation and how these factors can be used to facilitate implementation and sustenance of ITUs. Methods: We interviewed twelve midwifery and nursing tutors of an ITU on a maternity ward regarding their motivation for their role as tutors. Content analysis was performed on the data. Results: IPE tutors had various types of motivation for guiding interprofessional groups of healthcare students. Key factors influencing their motivation included appreciation for their role, perceived effectiveness of their guidance, learning from others, and a balance between their roles as health care professional (HCP) and tutor. Discussion and conclusion: HCPs serving as IPE tutors can be moved from controlled to autonomous motivation through enhancement of their feelings of autonomy, competence and relatedness, by providing tutors with operational support and professional development opportunities. Being a tutor also seems to foster the HCPs' professional identity. Further research is required to determine how tutors’ professional, interprofessional and tutor identities influence IPE outcomes for all stakeholders.

Background Simulation training is a validated, highly effective tool for learning laparoscopy. Feedback plays a crucial role in motor skills training. We present an app to guide students during advanced laparoscopy simulation training and evaluate its effect on training. Methods A smartphone(iOS)-app was developed. A group of trainees were randomized to use the app (YAPP) or not use the app (NAPP). We used blinded analysis with validated rating scales to assess their performance before and after the training. The number of requests for tutor feedback per session was recorded. Finally, the participants in the YAPP group completed a survey about their experience with the app. Results Fifteen YAPP and 10 NAPP completed the training program. There were no statistically significant differences between their skills performance scores (P = .338). The number of tutor feedback requests in the YAPP and NAPP was of 4 (3–6) and 13 (10–14) (P, Highlights • Simulation training is a validated, highly effective tool for learning laparoscopy. • Feedback plays a crucial role in motor skills training. • Expert feedback is often scarce, and tutors are usually not always available. • Simulation and mobile technology must be further combined to improve training efficacy.

Objectives The current study evaluated deaf and hard-of-hearing students' mental health in terms of emotional and behavioral strengths and difficulties, as measured by the SDQ in the Canary Islands. Furthermore, it evaluated the students’ psycholinguistic abilities using the Spanish version of the ITPA. Methods The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) was used to assess school children problems. The Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities measured student spoken and written linguistic abilities. Results Student self-reports yielded different SDQ scores to parent and teacher reports. Student spoken and written linguistic abilities varied according to ten covariates. Discussion Perceptions about the mental health of children differed according to the groups studied. Perceptions about student abilities in the classroom were different, particularly the ability to reproduce sequences of complex and non-significant figures by memory. Conclusion Two outcomes emerged: a) conduct problems were the SDQ subscale that most distinguished children with cochlear implants from those with hearing aids, and b) tutor and specialist teacher experience appeared as the decisive influencing students’ psycholinguistic abilities., Students, Cochlear implants, Hearing aids, SDQ, ITPA.

Healthcare education and training is considered an early adopter of innovative methodologies and theories. Information and communication technology started to play a vital role in healthcare education and training from its early days. Digital innovation, enacted as new technology or novel use of existing technology; in the form of software, hardware, or a combination of two is on the forefront on delivering and acquiring knowledge and skills ever since. This chapter sets the scene for the field of healthcare/medical education informatics and allows the reader to follow the rest of the book, being a healthcare and medical tutor, a health professional, clinician, psychologist, a web scientist, learning technologist, engineer, computer scientist, manager, policy maker, academic, or researcher. The chapters of this book allow the reader to acquire contemporary knowledge about the evolution of learning technologies and the web and its integration and role within modern healthcare education and training. They inform the reader with the latest digital innovation in healthcare education and training enabling all type of readers to apply them in their practice. As a useful paradigm of a cross-theme scholarly explanation on digital innovation in healthcare education and training, it provides an in-depth knowledge and experience into digital innovation in healthcare education and training.

The motivation to learn a foreign language is a complex process. It is the analysis of related aspects such as the role of the tutor in E-learning. However, the study of the motivation based on Self-Determination Theory -SDT- and E-learning English with the Computer Assisted Language Learning approach -CALL can provide tools to understand and improve the teaching-learning processes. This qualitative study aims to identify and analyze the aspects around motivation to learn English related to online tutor's role. The main instruments used to collect data were a focus group and a discursive analysis of the messages sent by the selected tutors. The participants in the research were a group of tutors composed of 5 women and 1 man. The analysis was carried out through semantic categorizations and with the support of NVivo 12 software. The results let assume that the role of the tutor can influence in the motivation to learn a foreign language, while optimizing communication processes., Psychology; Education; E-learning; Motivation; Tutor; Tutoring; Communication.

Song learning is generally assumed to be beneficial for a young songbird, but merely incidental, without costs or benefits, for the older song ‘tutors’. In the present study we contrast two mutually exclusive hypotheses about the tutor/tutee relationship: (1) that it is cooperative, or at least mutually tolerant, with tutor and tutee mutually benefiting from their relationship, versus (2) that it is competitive, with tutor and tutee competing over territory, so that one or the other suffers negative fitness consequences of their relationship. In a field study of three consecutive cohorts of song sparrows, Melospiza melodia morphna, we determined the older bird (primary tutor) from whom the young bird (tutee) learned most of his songs, and how long tutee and primary tutor survived subsequently. We found that the more songs a tutee learns from his primary tutor, the longer their mutual survival on their respective territories. While the number of songs they share predicts the mutual survival of tutor and tutee, it does not predict the independent survival of tutor or tutee, suggesting that the benefit each receives from song sharing exists only so long as both survive., National Science Foundation; University of Washington Royalty Research Fund

Reciprocal peer tutoring in mathematics was conducted with 487, ten to twelve year-old students from 20 elementary schools in three different school districts. The peer tutoring technique, a form of paired mathematics, placed specific emphasis on mediation through strategic metacognition between tutor and tutee. Student mathematics attainment significantly increased using this technique (Effect Size=+0.43). Student perception of the social status of their tutoring partner influenced attainment outcomes. Greatest mathematics attainment gains were predicted by having a higher opinion of the cognitive ability of students’ mathematics tutoring partner and by having a mathematics tutoring partner that you believed was less popular. After peer tutoring, students showed increased social relationships in and out of school. Gains in social relationships were indicative of a more inclusive classroom being developed. The implications for theory, policy, practice and future research are discussed.

Purpose Feedback within a problem-based learning tutorial can only influence learning if it is efficiently utilized. The purpose of this study was to explore perceived factors that influence student utilization of facilitator feedback within a problem-based learning tutorial. Methods It was an exploratory qualitative study that was conducted at an African Health Sciences University that has been using problem based learning for over a decade. The study involved third year students from across five health sciences disciplines that included: medicine, radiography, dentistry, nursing and pharmacy. Purposive sampling was the technique used to select the participants. These students had been previously exposed to problem based learning tutorials since their first year. Data was collected using both individual interviews and focus-group discussions. In total, twenty-five individual interviews and five focus group discussions were conducted. Results Both cognitive and social factors were discovered to influence students׳ use of feedback in a tutorial, and these have a reciprocal relationship, reinforcing each other to influence student learning. Key cognitive influencing factors included: overloaded feedback, unspecific and unfocused feedback, perceived limited knowledge of the tutor, differing feedback across tutorial groups and de-linking feedback from learning outcomes. The major social influencing factors included: language of feedback and communication, facilitator interpersonal skills, degree of participation of the facilitator, gender stereotyping and individualization of feedback. Conclusion Both cognitive and socio-contextual factors have the potential in influencing ways in which students receive and utilize facilitator feedback in PBL tutorials. Therefore, tutorial facilitators need to be cognizant of these factors when framing their feedback messages.

Purpose: There are no published instruments, which measure tutor motivation for conducting small group tutorials in problem-based learning programs. Therefore, we aimed to develop a motivation for tutoring questionnaire in problem-based learning (MTQ-PBL) and evaluate its construct validity. Methods: The questionnaire included 28 items representing four constructs: tutoring self-efficacy (15 items), tutoring interest (6 items), tutoring value (4 items), and tutoring effort (3 items). Tutors (n=158) from three problem-based medical schools in Egypt, Saudi Arabia and Bahrain rated their perceptions for each item on a 7-point Likert scale. Statistical analyses included examining the factor structure of the questionnaire, the differences between mean scores of each factor as a function of tutoring experience, and the motivation for tutoring scales as predictors of self-rated tutoring skills. Results: Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the four-factor theoretical model did not fit with the measurement model. The three items of the tutoring-effort construct were unidentified in the model and four items (three from tutoring self-efficacy and one from tutoring interest) had low regression weights. This ended up with a three-factor structure composed of 21 items representing three main constructs: tutoring self-efficacy (12 items) and tutoring interest (5 items), and tutoring value (4 items). The scores from the 21-item questionnaire demonstrated acceptable fitness indices between the measurement model and the factor structure. Furthermore, the three tutoring motivation subscales demonstrated high internal consistency reliability, significantly correlated with each other and correlated with the self-rated tutoring skills scores. In addition, tutoring efficacy scores significantly increased by years of tutoring experience and predicted 38% of the variance in self-rated tutoring skills scores. Discussion: Analyzing the tutors’ scores of their motivation for PBL tutoring yielded three significantly correlated constructs representing tutoring self-efficacy, tutoring interest and tutoring value. The findings demonstrated high internal consistency reliability of the questionnaire, strong correlation between the three constructs as well as correlations between the constructs and the self-rated tutoring skills scores. Taken together, the current study demonstrates that the newly developed instrument measuring motivation for PBL tutoring exhibits good psychometric properties. The findings in this paper pave the way for further studies for refining the measurement of this construct in different problem-based contexts.

Developments in information technology have challenged the traditional model of museums, libraries and similar venues acting as relatively passive ‘learning spaces’ for the public to access ‘knowledge’ as an exchange between tutor and learner, or in this context curator and visitor enabling them to offer more immersive and interactive modes of transfer. This article examines the development of a 3D model built from plans of a Roman edifice and its transfer into four game engines as vehicles for independent navigation around the ‘virtual building’. The game engines are evaluated in respect of their ability to enhance visitors’ experience by using an on-site facility when visiting a museum constructed over the physical remains. Cost and licensing override technical factors such as audiovisual and functional fidelity or composability and installing the system on a PC is preferable to more specialist game control devices if a broad user base is targeted.

Problem statement: Clinician-patient communication is a basic skill that medical students should learn as part of their training process. Communication skills curriculums aim to develop effective communication with patients, carers, and colleagues by working on both verbal and non-verbal skills. These include being able to take a history and share information, and particularly explaining procedures and discussing treatment options and their effects. Students taking the Communication, interview and clinical history module are asked to follow a simulated-patient clinical interview, which is recorded and then self and tutor- assessed using standardized questionnaires. Purpose of study: The aim of this study is to conduct a pilot test to compare questionnaire results for self and tutor-assessed video-recorded clinical interviews. Methods: The results of students’ self-assessment questionnaires within the Communication, interview and clinical history module (second year of the medical degree) were compared with those of their tutors. The questionnaire used was a shortened version of the 17-itemCICCA-D (Conectar-Identificar-Comprender-Acordar-Ayudar – Connect-Identify-Understand-Agree- Help) instrument (score of 2, 1 or 0 for each item), based on patient-centred interviews. The assessments were carried out independently from one another, with no previous training, after watching the clinical interview video recording. Results: A total of 47 student and tutor assessments were carried out. Differences in the global average scores were statistically significant (p-value < 0.05). The students’ mean self-assessment score was 13 (SD = 5), while the tutors’ was 15 (SD = 5). A weak direct and statistically significant correlation was observed in the global questionnaire score between both self and tutor assessment (n = 47): with an ICC of 0.41 (confidence interval [CI] 95%, (0.09 – 0.66). Conclusions: Pilot test results show that tutors consider students having better communication skills than students themselves. Lack of previous training in the use of the questionnaire could be relevant. Further research is needed to confirm these preliminary results

Objectives To explore and empower physiotherapy students who reported being bullied or harassed on clinical placements by co-developing, implementing and evaluating strategies that could be adopted by the university. Design A participatory action research design was employed. Participants Two focus groups were carried out involving 5 final year physiotherapy students. In the first focus group negative experiences were discussed and coping strategies suggested for their penultimate placement. A second focus group was held following the students’ final placement when these strategies were evaluated and further ones proposed. Analysis A thematic analysis of the data was carried out. Results Four themes and sub-themes emerged from the analysis. The four themes were negative experiences on placement, coping strategies, the role of the visiting tutor and the assessment. The students’ highlighted various degrees of threat to their efficacy and in most cases could draw upon a suggested ‘tool box’ of coping strategies. They all agreed that serious cases of harassment require wider support from the University senior management team which should be clearly documented. The role of the visiting tutor was deemed to be critical in these situations and recommendations were made regarding this role and the assessment of placements. Conclusion Students understand that they are going to be assessed before achieving their professional qualification and in essence they will always find themselves in a hierarchical position but equally fairness must prevail and it is important and that there are clear avenues for them to seek support.

In the United States, more than 15 % of adults are struggling with low literacy skills. Adults who struggle with reading are a heterogeneous group with an extremely varied set of skills and experiences. Difficult circumstances often dictate their ability to attend classes regularly thus leading to problems in their ability to engage with and retain learning strategies. The Center for the Study of Adult Literacy (CSAL) has designed an adaptive, web-based instructional tutor that could meet the struggling adult learners' needs for individualized instruction and emotional support. Each CSAL AutoTutor lesson utilizes two computerized agents (a peer agent and a tutor agent) in a trialogue conversation with the adult learner. These agents give the learner guidance, support, and a narrative through which to view each lesson. The agents also allow the adult learner the opportunity to interact and collaborate in a range of scenarios. Texts and examples have been carefully selected for multiple difficulty levels. Based on performance, learners are given easier passages and increased feedback to provide the learner with additional support through moments of confusion. More challenging material with decreased amounts of feedback is provided to learners who are succeeding with the strategies in order to negate boredom and improve motivation.

There are at least as many different ways to teach people as there are people. However, many of them break down into short- and long-term teaching. With short-term teaching, you are likely working with one or more people on specific projects. This can be as short as an evening tutorial or as long as a few months helping people learn well enough to transition from Learning to Doing.

Analysis of the Fukushima nuclear reactor disaster will show how to learn from failures using multi-models. This type of analysis can enrich the modeling of causal factors, provide insight into policy making and support decisions for resource allocations to prevent such disasters. The analysis presented here is based on a workshop on learning from failures in which students and practitioners (we will call them “delegates” hereafter) were first given a brief about the related theory (as in Chapter 1), followed by an introduction to the analytical techniques that can be used (as in Chapter 2 on FTA and RBD and Chapter 3 on AHP). They were then given a brief in the form of a narrative of the accident derived from investigation reports and divided into small groups tasked to perform an analysis of the disaster and to present their recommendation both orally and in a written report. All participants were asked to follow a certain presentation format. Firstly there would be a technical description of the sequence of events that would be a more in-depth research account than provided in the initial summary, one related more to the scope of their analysis. Then, this would be followed by a review of the consequences of the accident and a presentation of their multi-model analysis of the event. Finally, a set of generic lessons and recommendations, to prevent future failures of such systems, would be presented. The tutor then offered a collective feedback and addressed any generic lessons.

Accepted version of an article in Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, 17 (2011), 107-112. Also available from the publisher: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ctcp.2010.08.001 The effect of omega-3 fatty acids on depression is well documented. The purpose of this study was to determine if and how food is used as medicine in psychiatric care, especially how omega-3 fatty acids are used as a supplement in the treatment of depression. This is a pilot study with a qualitative design using questionnaires and interviews among nursing students, tutor nurses and psychiatrists. Three main categories emerged: 1. Nutrition is considered important but few evaluations are made. 2. There was a lack of knowledge of the effects of Omega 3. 3. There was an unclear divisions of responsibility among health personell. A change in knowledge paradigms and clarification of responsibility is called for if food-as-medicine is to take its true place in psychiatric care. It is also necessary to include CAM and holistic perspectives. Further research is needed to determine why health education and health workers do not focus on nutrition therapy in psychiatric care. Further research is also needed to reveal both the patients, the GPs and the CAM practitionaires knowledge and attitude to the use of dietary supplements.

When a child learns to read, the learning process can be enhanced by significant reading practice with individual support from a tutor. But in reality, the availability of teachers or clinicians is limited, so the additional use of a fully automated reading tutor would be beneficial for the child. This paper discusses our efforts to develop an automated reading tutor for Dutch. First, the dedicated speech recognition and synthesis modules in the reading tutor are described. Then, three diagnostic and remedial reading tutor tools are evaluated in practice and improved based on these evaluations: (1) automatic assessment of a child’s reading level, (2) oral feedback to a child at the phoneme, syllable or word level, and (3) tracking where a child is reading, for automated screen advancement or for direct feedback to the child. In general, the presented tools work in a satisfactory way, including for children with known reading disabilities. Duchateau J., Kong Y.O., Cleuren L., Latacz L., Roelens J., Samir A., Demuynck K., Ghesquière P., Verhelst W., Van hamme H., ''Developing a reading tutor : design and evaluation of dedicated speech recognition and synthesis modules'', Speech communication, vol. 51, no. 10, pp. 985-994, 2009. ispartof: Speech Communication vol:51 issue:10 pages:985-994 status: published

One of the intelligent tutors, AnimalWatch, supports students in solving arithmetic word problems about endangered species, thus integrating mathematics, narrative, and biology. Mathematics problems—addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division problems—are designed to motivate 10- to 12-year-old students to use mathematics in the context of solving practical problems, embedded in an engaging narrative. A second intelligent tutor is the Pump Algebra Tutor (PAT), a full-year algebra course for 12- to 15-year-old students. The PAT design is guided by the theoretical principles of John Anderson's cognitive model, Adaptive Control of Thought, which contains a psychological model of the cognitive processes behind successful and near-successful performance. This chapter presents several features of intelligent tutors. The first feature of intelligent tutors, generativity , is the ability to generate appropriate resources for each student. The second and third features of intelligent tutors are student knowledge and expert knowledge representing topics, concepts, and processes of the domain. The fifth feature of intelligent tutors is interactive learning or being responsive to students' learning needs.

Publisher Summary This chapter describes design principles, and methodologies for planning, and implementing systematic evaluations of intelligent tutors. The first stage of intelligent tutor evaluation is to identify the goals of the tutors. Some tutor goals might be measured by tracking transfer-of-skills to other domains, improving student self-efficacy, or modifying student attitude about a domain. Tutors operate in a variety of contexts, and might differentially affect students with greater or lesser aptitude in the domain. They might also represent different learning theories, and therefore measure distinct learning outcomes. The second stage of intelligent tutor evaluation is to identify the goals of the evaluation. Tutor evaluation might contribute to tutor development or be directed at whether software does or does not improve on current practice. The third stage of intelligent tutor evaluation is to develop an evaluation design based on the goals of the tutor and the evaluation. The fourth stage of intelligent tutor evaluation is to instantiate the design with the required details. The fifth stage of intelligent tutor evaluation is to analyze and present findings of the evaluation. Statistical tests are used along with tables and graphs. The final stage of intelligent tutor evaluation is to discuss and interpret the evaluation.

Publisher Summary Machine learning (ML) refers to a system's ability to acquire, and integrate knowledge through large-scale observations, and to improve, and extend itself by learning new knowledge rather than by being programmed with that knowledge. ML techniques are used in intelligent tutors to acquire new knowledge about students, identify their skills, and learn new teaching approaches. They improve teaching by repeatedly observing how students react and generalize rules about the domain or student. The role of ML techniques in a tutor is to independently observe and evaluate the tutor's actions. ML tutors customize their teaching by reasoning about large groups of students, and tutor-student interactions, generated through several components. A performance element is responsible for making improvements in the tutor, using perceptions of tutor/student interactions, and knowledge about the student's reaction to decide how to modify the tutor to perform better in the future. ML techniques are used to identify student learning strategies, such as, which activities do students select most frequently and in which order. Analysis of student behavior leads to greater student learning outcome by providing tutors with useful diagnostic information for generating feedback.

Publisher Summary A student model in an intelligent tutor observes student behavior and creates a qualitative representation of a student's cognitive, and affective knowledge. This model partially accounts for student performance (time on task, observed errors) and reasons about adjusting feedback. A domain usually refers to an area of study, and the goal of most intelligent tutors is to teach a portion of the domain. Building a domain model is often the first step in representing student knowledge, which might represent the same knowledge as the domain model, and solve the same problems. A student model is often built as an overlay or proper subset of a domain model. Such models show the difference between novice and expert reasoning, perhaps by indicating how students rate on mastery of each topic, missing knowledge, and which curriculum elements need more work. Bandwidth describes the amount and quality of information available to the student model. Some tutors record only a single input word or task from students. Open user modeling reflects the student's right to inspect, and control the student model, and participate in its creation, and management. It is also called overt, inspectable, participative, cooperative, collaborative, and learner-controlled modeling aimed at improving the student modeling enterprise. Open user model refers to the full set of tutor beliefs about the user, including modeling student knowledge as well as preferences, and other attributes.

In London especially there were a handful of back-room staff that were essential for the newly established discipline of tropical medicine to get off the ground. Sir Rubert William Boyce (1863–1911) and Sir Alfred Jones both took a prominent role in the foundation of the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine. Boyce was the first Dean of the School. David Charles Rees was the first Superintendent and medical tutor of the London School at the Albert Dock Hospital. Rees was largely responsible for the School's curriculum and syllabus, which apparently remained unaltered for many years. Charles Wilberforce Daniels (1862–1927) was a lecturer at the (Royal) London and St George's Hospitals, and the London School of Medicine for Women. Hugh Basil Greaves Newham served as a ship's surgeon. Having obtained the DPH in 1900, he spent six years in general practice in Liverpool.

John Palsgrave, a native of London, wrote the first major grammar of the French language, Lesclarcissement de la langue francoyse (1530), which also included an English–French dictionary. After studying in Paris, Palsgrave entered holy orders and was named French tutor to Mary, Henry VIII's sister and future Queen of France (1512–1513). Following her marriage to Louis XII in 1515, Palsgrave returned to England, worked with Thomas More, visited Erasmus, studied law in Louvain, and continued tutoring members of the royal family (for full biographical details, see Carver, 1937).

Franciscus Junius F F was born in January 29, 1591, in Heidelberg, Germany. Gerardus J Vossius, the renowned humanist who became his brother-in-law, was headmaster of his Latin school and interested him in more advanced studies of the older stages of the Germanic languages. Junius studied the arts and theology at Leiden. For a short time, Junius served as a priest but then resigned and went to England, where he lived with the Howard family as a tutor, antiquarian, and art historian for more than 20 years.

This article is a brief overview of the history and uses of the Internet in language learning and teaching. The overview is divided into three main sections: the Internet as Classroom, which discusses online courses and programs; the Internet as Tool, which describes the uses of the Internet for research, as a resource for authentic language, and as a vehicle to promote interaction; and finally, the Internet as Tutor, which looks at online activities and websites that provide language practice of various kinds. In a final section, the issues of equality and democracy are discussed, including the so-called digital divide.

Schlegel, August Wilhelm [from 1815:] von, writer, literary critic, translator, philologist, and student of the Sanskrit language and its literature, elder brother of Friedrich Schlegel, was born in Hanover (Germany) on September 5, 1767. He studied theology and philosophy at the University of Gottingen, where he was mainly influenced by the philologist C. G. Heyne and the poet G. A. Burger. Between 1791 and 1795 he was a tutor in Amsterdam. From 1798 he was associate professor at the University of Jena. He moved to Berlin, where he delivered courses of private lectures on literary history (1801–1804). From 1804 till her death in 1817 he was secretary, traveling companion, and literary adviser to Madame de Stael (Anne Louise Germaine de Stael-Holstein, 1766–1817). In 1818 he was appointed professor of the history of art and literature at the University of Bonn, where he established Indic studies, thus becoming the founder of Indic philology in Germany. He died in Bonn on May 12, 1845.

Publisher Summary This chapter describes the wisdom of practice that explains the lessons learned from the study of highly effective tutors. This chapter presents that in the 21st century, tutoring remains the ideal of education. The tutorial is inherently individualized. This individualization, in turn, permits the tutor to elicit from each student a much higher level of on-task attention and effort. It is, in addition, a virtual prerequisite for the high levels of both immediacy and interactivity that also characterize the tutorial process. Thus, in an individual tutorial, both knowledge of results and other forms of feedback and instruction are received by students. Highly effective or “expert” tutors are then identified on the basis of their actual degree of observable success, across a number of different tutees, in promoting student learning and motivation. The tutoring sessions conducted by the highly effective tutors are analyzed from a number of perspectives, and are contrasted with tutoring sessions conducted by less experienced or by equally experienced but objectively less successful tutors. The tutors share a generally Socratic approach, in the sense that tutors seek to draw as much as possible from the student and to impose as little as possible of themselves on the student. Finally, the goal of the analyses is to begin to identify the goals, strategies, and specific techniques that might contribute to the success of an individual tutorial.

Research on intelligent tutoring systems (ITS) has two aims: to provide sophisticated instructional advice on a one-on-one basis that is better than that achieved with conventional computer-aided instruction and is comparable to that of a good human tutor; and to develop and test models about the cognitive processes involved in instruction. The ‘intelligence’ of ITS comes from the application of artificial intelligence techniques which are used in four interacting components: The knowledge base contains the domain knowledge, the student model represents the student's current knowledge state, the pedagogical module contains suitable instructional measures which are contingent on the content of the student model, and the user interface enables an effective dialog between ITS and student. Usually, the knowledge base is the central part in the instructional process but there is a diversity of approaches that also put the emphasis on the other components. Although research on ITS has produced many interesting theoretical insights, there are relatively few ITS which are really used and there are very few which are regularly used in schools. This unsatisfactory state of affairs may be due to researchers' diversity of interests, missing evaluation studies that show the superiority of ITS, and theoretical problems with the student model. Current, more practically inclined, approaches de-emphasize the reliance on the problematic student model and put more effort in the construction of theory-based user interfaces.

Intelligent tutoring refers to computer-based instructional systems that are founded on the assumption that learning based on individualized instruction by a competent tutor is far superior to classroom-style group instruction. Good human tutors are ‘intelligent tutors’ because they are able to continously adapt the content and style of their instruction to best meet the needs of the learner. The historical evolution of intelligent tutoring systems is presented. The starting point was programmed instruction in the late 1960s, followed by knowledge-based tutors that try to simulate good human tutors by the integrated use of domain knowledge, teaching knowledge, and knowledge about the individual student. Finally some important current trends like distance learning, collaborative learning, and Web-based learning are outlined. The presentation is given within a cognitive science point of view. From this perspective the research on intelligent tutoring has shown many fruitful interactions between academic research and application-oriented research with regard to topics like knowledge representation, computerized assessment of knowledge, learning and knowledge acquisition, and expertise research.

The paper takes as its starting point a standard modelling problem on converting a try in the sport of rugby. Experience of using the problem as a student modelling assignment is described. Pedagogic questions are raised concerning the way in which problems are presented to students and the extent of tutor involvement during the early stages of the modelling. The use of seminars for feedback at the conclusion of modelling assignments is advocated. The rugby problem provides an opportunity for considering the aiming process in some detail. Other sports problems involving aiming are presented and compared.

Publisher Summary This chapter describes Ryle's behaviorism. Gilbert Ryle was lecturer and tutor in philosophy. His major work and the source for his behaviorism is his book “The Concept of Mind,” published in 1949. There is no disguising the fact that Ryle's OUR-behaviorism, along with the various forms of OR-behaviorism, has suffered an eclipse. But the reasons for this eclipse are somewhat different in the two cases. OUR-behaviorism, by contrast, has its roots, not in the science of psychology, but in the philosophy of language. As such, it is a deduction from two principles that, at the time, were taken for granted. In the case of OUR-behaviorism, the reasons are of two kinds, those connected with the eclipse of Wittgenstein's conceptual analysis as a philosophical methodology and those connected specifically with OUR-behaviorist analysis of mental disposition concepts. Ryle's hypothetical analysis of dispositional statements, and the OUR-behaviorist analysis of mental dispositions are all due, if not overdue, for a comeback. The issues raised by Wittgenstein and Ryle in this area are still being actively debated.

Publisher Summary The goal of intelligent tutoring systems (ITSs) would be to engage the students in sustained reasoning activity and to interact with the student based on a deep understanding of the students' behavior. This chapter begins by providing an overview of intelligent tutoring systems. The chapter comments on competing research goals in the field, followed by descriptions of two successful systems: (1) the Pittsburgh urban math project algebra tutor project and (2) the SHERLOCK project. These two systems are being deployed in real-world educational environments with substantial success. This chapter briefly describes the underlying theory and implementation of each system, to motivate later discussions. A description of the standard components in an intelligent tutoring system is also presented along with a discussion of human-computer interaction assessment issues unique to educational software. This chapter also provides a prescription for ITS design and development methods. Several issues concerning ITS design principles are also addressed in the chapter.

Today control system design can be supported by excellent software tools. Based on experiences using the professional CACSD tool MATRIXx in student education, a tutoring system called TUTOR has been developed. This paper describes the main concepts of this hypertext based tutoring system with its knowledge based assistant component. The advantage of a dialog driven user modelling, the integration of a professional CACSD tool concerning the learning process of the students and the development of the tutoring system will be discussed.

This chapter reviews forum LAN systems. To begin with, because of the utility of LAN implementation of the Forum Information System (FIS) and its input structure, four distinct yet related forums are formed prior to employment of the LAN, in the sense that owners, employees, regulators, and managers may play a role in decision making. Once the relevant parties know what changes are going to occur in their information practices, the LAN system can be physically implemented. Once it is in place, the day-to-day use of the FIS is a tutor on the ongoing life of the corporation. The implementation of the FIS involves the organizational development work involved in translating the prototype into a specific corporation setting. This is a translation of existing accounting, maintenance, operations, and strategic planning practices into FIS procedures. The utilization of the FIS is intended to promote organizational learning. The FIS differs from group decision support systems in that it attempts to address the decision information needs of the total corporation and to examine the effectiveness of the forum decision support system from the vantage point of the evaluation of decisions and their real-world consequences.

While the problem of student modeling in intelligent tutoring systems is often claimed to be intractable recent publications show that the idea is still alive. One main question is, what the actual benefits of these models are. As an answer to this question, we have developed a fairly elaborate episodic student model in the context of our LISP tutor. This student model implements a case-based reasoning approach to student modeling embedded in an elaborated help system to aid novices when learning LISP. It is shown how this episodic student model (ELM) can be used advantageously to improve the cognitive diagnosis and to find so-called remindings.

A program in teaching clinical psychiatry to first-year residents took place at the University of Virginia Hospital during the academic year of 1968–1969. The aim of this program was to teach patient-oriented psychiatry, utilizing several different teaching techniques. The program became known as “field-work” teaching and learning. In the program six first-year residents were assigned to a tutor who shared 5 hours per week with the group. The tutor became an “auxiliary therapist” and formed a “learning alliance” with the therapist-resident and other members of the group. The residents treated inpatients in rotation. The group observed the actual treatment through a one-way screen window, and discussion of the treatment hours followed these observations. The tutor's chief aim was to open a way for a “learning group” to evolve, rather than a therapy group. The participants discussed idiosyncratic response and learning patterns. To enhance the cognitive-intellectual aspects of the learning process, the tutor invited experts on the psychiatric staff and from outside to conduct seminars with the group. The intellectual-cognitive material arose from the clinical phenomena. A master reading list was prepared; it included classical papers, review articles, and clinical papers written by the University of Virginia's own psychiatric faculty. This paper gives the outline of this teaching-learning method and describes its theoretical rationale. An analogy can be made between psychoanalytic treatment aimed at ego-building and the teaching techniques applicable to the first-year resident whose ego is deficient in therapeutic experience. The residents need to learn the skills, language, and concepts of psychological medicine.

A computer coach for information retrieval (CIR) was developed and tested in a comparative study. The design of CIR has been based on extensive observation of 14/15 years old students performing information retrieval tasks. CIR consists of five components. The Expert module contains a production system of 20 rules describing efficient information retrieval. The Student module keeps track of variables describing the student's performance. The Tutor module applies didactic principles to the selection and presentation of advice during coaching. The Interaction module executes search commands and updates the problem space. The Monitor coordinates the activities of the modules. Comparison of students being coached or not being coached showed that coaching leads to systematic searching. A systematic approach to the retrieval of information is one of the first steps on the road to becoming an expert in retrieving information in a (particular) data base.

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses a number of projects that deal with diagnostic and tutoring issues in problem-solving contexts: (1) the FLOW tutor; (2) the SPADE project; (3) the MACSYMA ADVISOR; and (4) some systems developed in the context of the MENO project, including BRIDGE, PROUST, and MENO-TUTOR. The types of solutions analyzed by these systems result from a planning process whereby goals are implemented as sequences of actions. In diagnosis, all these systems make use of some form of hierarchical organization of known methods or plans. With this, they build a structure that connects solutions to goals. The FLOW tutor utilizes schemata organized in an active structural network, SPADE views a plan as a parse tree, the ADVISOR constructs a dependency graph, and PROUST attaches plans to a goal hierarchy. The FLOW tutor performs its analysis online, although its model of programming is rudimentary. The SPADE incorporates global aspects of the design process, which bring to bear constraints external to purely hierarchical planning. The BRIDGE is based on a study of misconceptions about the programming domain, which takes into consideration the linguistic knowledge novices bring to learning computer programming. The ADVISOR seeks to infer the user's beliefs about the domain and to engage in a dialogue in terms of these beliefs. Finally, the PROUST is able to cope with interactions between multiple goals and has shown promise in real instructional settings.

Publisher Summary William Clancey undertook the task of building a tutorial system on top of MYCIN for his doctoral dissertation. This chapter discusses three phases of the project, including GUIDON, NEOMYCIN, and GUIDON2. The project gave rise to a fascinating inquiry into epistemological questions related to knowledge communication. This inquiry, which continues today, has produced some of the most spectacular demonstrations of the field's ability to bring to light fundamental AI research issues. GUIDON is a tutor built on top of MYCIN, with the following goals: (1) assessing the pedagogical usefulness of MYCIN'S knowledge base, (2) uncovering the additional knowledge a tutoring system would require, and (3) attempting to express tutorial strategies in domain-independent terms. Although its existing rules are used differently in tutoring, MYCIN itself is not modified for this first version of GUIDON. The rule base and the consulting facilities serve as a core, which is extended with new capabilities and other augmentations to produce an active tutor. The pedagogical presentation strategy adopted for GUIDON's presentation is the following case method: a mixed-initiative dialogue concentrates on successive specific cases so as to convey MYCIN'S knowledge to students in a realistic problem-solving context.

PUPS learning mechanisms center around the representation of causal relationships between objects or events. These learning mechanisms involve (1) a set of principles for inducing causal relationships in absence of a domain theory; (2) a set of analogical mechanisms for extrapolating the causal analysis of one situation in order to predict or problem solve in another situation; and (3) compilation procedures for turning these extrapolations into general production rules. These learning mechanisms are illustrated with respect to a detailed example from the algebra tutor where they do a good job of reproducing the instructionless learning we observe of students.

The Talking Tutor ‘N’ Trainer (the TNT system is described in a companion paper) was used to explore automated error diagnosis and coaching strategies for people learning a computer-based procedural skill. An early version of TNT was evaluated by having students complete a tutorial on text editing and then attempt editing exercises with no support. Some students performed very poorly on these exercises. Keystroke data from the exercises were analyzed to identify patterns that were symptomatic of missing procedural knowledge. Patterns had sufficient frequency and stability to be considered as the basis for feedback to students. Two “computer coaches” used the keystroke patterns to detect when a student was in trouble, diagnose the nature of that trouble, and give feedback during the exercises. A “Diagnostic Coach” gave an error diagnosis but no remedy; a “Remedial Coach” gave both. The coaches produced better performance than the unsupported condition, especially for students predicted to have the greatest difficulty learning. The Remedial Coach was rated as effective and as pleasant as a human tutor.