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Abstract: This article introduces a bottom-up global model of the pulp and paper sector (PULPSIM) with a focus on energy consumption and carbon emissions. It is an annual recursive simulation behavioural model with a 2030 time horizon incorporating several technological details of the industry for 47 world regions. The long time horizon and the modular structure allow the model users to assess the effects of different environmental, energy and climate policies in a scenario comparison setup. In addition to the business as usual developments of the sector, a climate commitment scenario has been analysed, in which the impacts of changing forest management practices are also included. The climate scenario results reveal that there is a significant carbon reduction potential in the pulp and paper making, showing a number of specific features: the central role of the fibrous resource inputs and the potential impact of increased waste wood and black liquor based heat generation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The pulp and paper industry is a high energy consuming and polluting sector, and carbon emissions emitted from this sector are worthy of attention. This article, based upon an analysis of China’s Pulp and Paper Industry (CPPI), provides estimates of each of the following: carbon emissions from energy consumption, pre-treatment sector, combustion of condensed black liquor, and methane emitted from incomplete aerobic digestion during sewage treatment of CPPI. During the study period (2005–2012), total CO 2 emissions ranged from 126.0 Mt to 155.4 Mt. Energy consumption was estimated to be the largest source of carbon emissions, however, due to the application of the local emission inventory rather than the IPCC inventory, energy consumption decreased by 4.7%, a lower percentage than was calculated in a previous study. According to this study’s estimation, the emissions caused by the recovery of biomass energy contributed 26–29% of the total CO 2 emissions. CH 4 generated from sewage treatment accounted for 9–11% of the total carbon emissions. The CO 2 intensity dropped during the study period, which reflected the improvement of energy efficiency in the pulp and paper industry. The outcome of this study provides not only detailed information about CPPI’s carbon emissions, but also a calculation framework for studying carbon emissions from pulp and paper sector in the other regions. It suggests that the local carbon emissions inventory should be used for estimating carbon emissions and to reduce the fossil fuel energy, increase energy recovery from biomass, and that promoting cleaner production is essential to achieve a low carbon development of the pulp and paper industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Despite the heightened urgency of curbing carbon emissions around the world, the healthcare sector in general, and the pharmaceutical sector in particular have received very little attention from the sustainability community in terms of their contribution to the global carbon footprint. In this paper, we conduct an analysis of the overall contributions and the historical emissions trends of the pharmaceutical sector, as well as an industry-specific comparative analysis of the major pharmaceutical companies in the world. Surprisingly, our analysis reveals that the pharmaceutical industry is significantly more emission-intensive than the automotive industry. We also use a previously published mathematical framework linking national target emissions to the target emission intensity of the pharmaceutical sector to derive the emission intensity of the pharmaceutical sector required for the US to meet its reductions commitments per the now defunct Obama-administration commitments at the 2015 Paris Agreement. We identify the excess emitters among the top-15 Pharmaceutical companies, from those that are leading the pack with their emissions improvement efforts. The results are quite instructive as we find a far greater variability amongst the Top-15 pharmaceuticals than the Top-10 automotive companies, suggesting a very disparate set of environmental practices within the industry. The paper should elicit further in-depth studies of the environmental performance of the pharmaceutical sector and help inform policy makers, business leaders and academicians on how to help curb this unwarranted level of emissions in this important and growing industry sector. Graphical abstract We conduct an analysis of the overall contributions and the historical emissions trends of the pharmaceutical sector, as well as an industry-specific comparative analysis of the major pharmaceutical companies in the world. Surprisingly, our analysis reveals that the pharmaceutical industry is significantly more emission-intensive than the automotive industry. We also use a previously published mathematical framework linking national target emissions to the target emission intensity of the pharmaceutical sector to derive the emission intensity of the pharmaceutical sector required for the US to meet its reductions commitments per the now defunct Obama-administration commitments at the 2015 Paris Agreement. We then use the same framework to identify the excess emitters among the top 15 Pharmaceutical companies, from those that are leading the pack with their emissions improvement efforts. There again, the results are quite instructive as we find a far greater variability amongst the Top 15 pharmaceuticals than the Top 10 automotive companies. Image 1 Highlights • Assessment and comparative analysis of GHG emissions of Top-15 global pharmaceutical companies. • The pharmaceutical industry emission intensity is about 55% higher than the automotive's. • There is a great level of variability in emissions (up to 5x) between peers with comparable revenues. • We calculate the intensities and maximum emissions required to comply with the Paris Agreement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper summarizes 19 papers published in a special issue of Ecological Engineering under the general banner of wetlands and carbon. Many of the papers were presented at a special session at EcoSummit 2016 in Montpellier, France in August-September 2016. The papers are in four general categories: estimating greenhouse gas fluxes with eddy covariance; methane and other greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands; carbon sequestration by wetlands; and organic carbon decomposition in wetlands. Overall, we found that further development and wider use of eddy covariance measuring stations could help clarify long-term annual budgets of CO 2 and CH 4 in wetlands and, while CH 4 fluxes in some coastal wetlands such as mangroves can be negligible, some inland wetlands can be significant sources of CH 4 where hydroperiods are the major determinants of the emission rates. The papers here demonstrated a variety of parameters determining dynamics of methane fluxes and carbon sequestration in different wetlands and lead us to suggest that more attention should be paid to detailed analysis of the impact of environmental and management factors on carbon budgets in wetlands. Carbon sequestration is almost always estimated by soil dating methods such as with 137 Cs and 210Pb isotopes and results continue to show order of magnitude differences among systems but sometimes among laboratories. This is due to the inexact nature of estimating soil dates over relatively short (∼50 year) time horizons. The idea of capping landfills, which are enormous methane sources, with wetlands which could then turn them into carbon sinks is worth investigating further but the design of these systems is still in its infancy. Organic carbon decomposition in wetlands has been investigated extensively for decades and more recently on the biogeochemical processes. ‘Enzymic latches” such as phenol oxidase, which can break down phenolics and therefore speed up decomposition, may be key controllers of organic matter decomposition in waterlogged and submerged soils in wetlands. The best approach for balancing greenhouse gases and carbon sequestration remains an enigma, but the papers in this special issue take us one step closer to providing clarity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Diverse citizens need to be involved in net zero transitions to ensure policy interventions do not entrench inequalities for people from minoritised or disenfranchised groups and ensure public engagement with rapid social changes. This paper illustrates the importance of designing enjoyable engagement activities aimed at segmented citizen and community groups, to ensure a broad cross-section of society can participate in environmental debate and policymaking. We analysed an evaluation sample of 857 people, representing 10.3% of the 8302 people directly engaged with the ClairCity project from six European countries. Women were under-represented in our activities, and younger participants preferred non-traditional forms of engagement like online games. Across all activities, multiple regression analyses found statistically significant relationships between younger age groups and enjoyment, and a positive correlation between enjoyment and understanding of air quality. Behaviour change intention was also significantly positively correlated to understanding, with 74% of participants indicating they would make a behaviour change to improve air quality. While climate change and air pollution are serious issues, public engagement to raise awareness and improve participation in policymaking does not have to be. To fully realise citizen-led emissions reduction, policymakers need to co-create engagement activities which are enjoyable, inclusive, and attractive to diverse citizens representing regional demographics. Ultimately, the more enjoyable and relevant the engagement activities, the more understanding people gain about the issues, and are therefore more likely to make a change to individual or community behaviours to reduce air pollution and carbon emissions and improve public and environmental health. [Display omitted] • Diverse communities need representation in climate/air pollution policymaking. • One size does not fit all: different activities attracted different demographics. • Activity enjoyment was significantly positively correlated to understanding. • Understanding was significantly positively correlated to behaviour change intent. • Policymakers should plan enjoyable activities to enable social learning between groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is an international divide between net emissions importers and net emissions exporters, with industrialised nations mainly falling into the former and emerging economies the latter. Integrating emissions transfers into climate policy, so as not to disadvantage export-intensive countries, has been suggested to increase participation in international emissions reduction commitments. Consumption-based scenarios are presented for the UK identifying the geographic and sectorial source of emissions to meet future consumer demands given the current international climate policy landscape. The analysis is applied to the UK yet the discussion is applicable to international climate policy; assigning national responsibility for global emissions reductions; and extending the mitigation potential for net importing countries. Two trajectories for UK consumption emissions are calculated in which (1) international reduction targets are consistent with those pledged today equating to four degrees of temperature rise and (2) international reduction targets achieve a two degree future. By 2050 it is estimated that UK consumption emissions are 40–260% greater than UK territorial emissions depending on the strength of global reduction measures, and assuming the UK meets its 80% reduction in 1990 emissions by 2050 target. Cumulative emissions are presented alongside emissions trajectories, recognising that temperature rise is directly related to every tonne of carbon emitted. Whilst this paper argues that the current UK emissions targets underestimate the UK's contribution to global mitigation for two degrees, it shows how expanding the focus of policy towards consumption introduces new opportunities for reduction strategies at scale. The paper advocates the implementation of consumption-based emissions accounting which reveals underexploited policy interventions and increases the potential to break down barriers that exist between industrialised and emerging economies in international climate policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The majority of the total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in China are energy-related. Thus, full understanding of energy-related GHG emissions is crucial for local governments to establish a baseline for tracking emission trends and developing mitigation strategies. In this paper, we present a survey-based GHG emission accounting method for sectoral energy consumption and apply it in Xiaolan, a typical town of Zhongshan. The method combines scope and sectoral analyses on the basis of local statistical approach, and pays more attention to data collection process. Scenarios of core findings in the study are list as below: (1) The energy-related GHG emissions of Xiaolan in 2010 was 2,072,444 tons of carbon dioxide equivalents (CO 2 e). Of this, 31.83% was Scope 1 emissions (direct emissions) and 68.17% was Scope 2 emissions (indirect emissions); (2) Emissions from “manufacturing”, “residents”, and “power, gas & water production and supply” made up 90.27%, among which, “manufacturing” represents the biggest emitting sector as 69.09%; (3) In 2010, the per capita GHG emissions was lower than that in most of the other Chinese cities, but higher than several Asian cities including Amman and Tokyo. Some strategic approaches to reduce GHG emissions were proposed: (1) save energy and improve energy efficiency; (2) optimize energy structure and develop low-carbon energy; (3) update manufacturing structure; (4) improve GHG emission management for the resident sector. Finally, we identified a number of key research issues to advance the town level GHG emission method for future research needs. This paper provides a useful method to understand and profile GHG emissions for towns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Greenhouse gases are the prime cause of climate change, to which India is a significant party. Globally the issue of sub-national or local emissions is increasingly gaining relevance, particularly post-2009, when greater-half of the world has become urbanized for the first time in the human history. International Energy Agency, in its World Energy Outlook report estimates that 70% of the greenhouse gases are produced within the cities. But, there is limited empirical evidence to substantiate such claims in the Indian context. It being a developing country with a large rural population base, the carbon footprint of cities goes unnoticed. On the other hand, unreeling economic growth and rapid urbanization during the last two decades, coupled with limited data in the subject pressingly seeks a systematic determination of urban emission baseline. This research analyzes historic trends of urbanization, thermal power generation and greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions, and evaluates their growth trajectories for the imminent future. This paper is also a first time investigation of urban India's (covering over 7000 Indian towns and cities) contribution of GHG emissions. In absence of any international protocol or a standard methodology to estimate urban GHG burdens of a nation, this paper deals with theoretical issues evident while allocating city emissions like methodological differences, defining ‘urban’ and its boundary and the need to consider downscaling of nationally reported emissions using spatial analysis based on production or location perspective of the most significantly contributing sector namely, energy. Dataset of 454 thermal units reported by Central Electricity Authority for 2011–12 from over hundred coal, diesel, gas and liquid fuel based gas turbine plants has been assessed. The individual plants are verified for their name, capacity, generation and local address from their respective state generation corporations or electricity boards, as applicable. They are then spatially located real time, using universally available (and verifiable) web-based mapping tool of Google Earth and Wikimapia. The information has been assessed on the urban-rural gradient, using population based Census definition for class/hierarchy of towns and their location with respect to the urban boundary. The thermal power plants have eventually been classified within the urban area, on the periphery, transitional or rurban and absolutely rural. The results present an array of emissions, across the urban hierarchy and location in space, underpinning how substantial GHG emissions are attributable to urban and urbanizing areas. The research puts forth, with strong evidence, that in contrast to the general postulation, urban settlements radically contribute to national carbon footprint, which is further bound to increase with urbanization. The findings bear significance to influence research, policy and action in energy and urban sectors and greater cross-sector integration for co-benefits in climate change mitigation at the local city level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The need to adapt to climate change is now widely recognised as evidence of its impacts on social and natural systems grows and greenhouse gas emissions continue unabated. Yet efforts to adapt to climate change, as reported in the literature over the last decade and in selected case studies, have not led to substantial rates of implementation of adaptation actions despite substantial investments in adaptation science. Moreover, implemented actions have been mostly incremental and focused on proximate causes; there are far fewer reports of more systemic or transformative actions. We found that the nature and effectiveness of responses was strongly influenced by framing. Recent decision-oriented approaches that aim to overcome this situation are framed within a “pathways” metaphor to emphasise the need for robust decision making within adaptive processes in the face of uncertainty and inter-temporal complexity. However, to date, such “adaptation pathways” approaches have mostly focused on contexts with clearly identified decision-makers and unambiguous goals; as a result, they generally assume prevailing governance regimes are conducive for adaptation and hence constrain responses to proximate causes of vulnerability. In this paper, we explore a broader conceptualisation of “adaptation pathways” that draws on ‘pathways thinking’ in the sustainable development domain to consider the implications of path dependency, interactions between adaptation plans, vested interests and global change, and situations where values, interests, or institutions constrain societal responses to change. This re-conceptualisation of adaptation pathways aims to inform decision makers about integrating incremental actions on proximate causes with the transformative aspects of societal change. Case studies illustrate what this might entail. The paper ends with a call for further exploration of theory, methods and procedures to operationalise this broader conceptualisation of adaptation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As countries strive to meet their targets for reducing the effects of global climate change, the de-carbonization of energy systems becomes a hot topic in the worldwide energy business. In the meantime, Fuel-cell vehicles (FCVs) play an influential role in integrating more renewable sources and reducing urban pollution as a suitable replacement for diesel vehicles. However, emission pollution from the preparation of the primary fuel for hydrogen-based transportation cannot be neglected. This paper presents a multi-objective approach to operating FCVs along with wind and solar sources and power-to-gas (P2G) storage to reduce operating costs and pollution emissions in a hybrid power-gas-hydrogen system. One of the main concerns in the performance of FCVs is the stable supply of hydrogen as the primary fuel. In this paper, P2G is coupled with FCVs as a high-efficiency technology to convert excess electrical energy into hydrogen and natural gas to play an influential role in carbon capturing while maintaining its stable performance. The proposed hybrid system participates in the electricity and gas markets while supplying the hydrogen needed for FCV and selling hydrogen to hydrogen-based industries. Considering the uncertainty related to renewable sources and prices, the problem is modeled as a multi-objective probabilistic model, and the weighted sum approach based on fuzzy decision-making is used to solve it. After comprehensively analyzing FCV's performance, results show an 8.04% and 9.8% reduction in the cost and emission pollution, respectively, under the comprehensive operation approach of FCV and P2G technology. [Display omitted] • Providing synergy between hydrogen, natural gas, and electricity. • Providing flexible hydrogen production source for vehicle. • Analyzing emissions in FCV caused by preparing hydrogen fuel. • Developing a multi-objective optimization in the synergy problem. • Coupling P2G and FCV reduces cost and emission up to 9 and 8%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The unprecedented resources and energy needed to support the high growth of urbanization with the emerging issues of environmental degradation and GHG emissions is increasingly dramatic in China. A series of national and local policies have been implemented for achieving the co-benefits of reducing emissions of greenhouse gas (GHG) and air pollution for China's sustainable development. In this paper, the achievement of climate change mitigation and air pollution reduction in different sectors through implementing policies is reviewed. This paper reports on the types of policy measures that have been introduced in two cases (i.e. Tiexi District of Shenyang and Baoshan District of Shanghai) to affect air quality and energy efficiency improvements, which are then collectively examined in terms of their impacts on GHG and air pollutant emissions. Recommendations are made for achieving co-benefits effectively through the integrated approach by comprehensively concentrating on the short and long-term environmental protection and energy conservation at local and national levels based on the analysis made in the paper. The limited coordination and lack of capacity in different government bodies may be the main barriers to the implementation of a co-benefits approach. Enhancing the cooperation and capacity building could overcome these obstacles. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper presents an emission inventory (EI) for biomass open burning (OB) sources including forest, agro-residue and municipal solid waste (MSW) in Indonesia for year 2007. The EI covered toxic air pollutants and greenhouse gases (GHGs) and was presented as annual and monthly average for every district, and further on a grid of 0.25° × 0.25°. A rigorous analysis of activity data and emission factor ranges was done to produce the low, best and high emission estimates for each species. Development of EI methodology for MSW OB which, to our best knowledge, has not been presented in detail in the literature was a focus of this paper. The best estimates of biomass OB emission of toxic air pollutants for the country, in Gg, were: 9.6 SO2; 98 NOx; 7411 CO; 335 NMVOC; 162 NH3; 439 PM10; 357 PM2.5; 24 BC; and 147 OC. The best emission estimates of GHGs, in Gg, were: 401 CH4, 57,247 CO2; and 3.6 N2O. The low and high values of the emission estimates for different species were found to range from −86% to +260% of the corresponding best estimates. Crop residue OB contributed more than 80% of the total biomass OB emissions, followed by forest fire of 2–12% (not including peat soil fire emission) and MSW (1–8%). An inter-annual active fires count for Indonesia showed relatively low values in 2007 which may be attributed to the high rainfall intensity under the influence of La Niña climate pattern in the year. Total estimated net climate forcing from OB in Indonesia was 110 (20 year horizon) and 73 (100 year horizon) Tg CO2 equivalents which is around 0.9–1.1% of that reported for the global biomass OB for both time horizons. The spatial distribution showed higher emissions in large urban areas in Java and Sumatra Island, while the monthly emissions indicated higher values during the dry months of August–October. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In this paper an attempt has been made to assess the performance of an office building located in London (one of the case study buildings in CIBSE TM36: 2005) in relation to energy consumption, carbon emissions and potential for adaptability to the 2050s climate. Overheating is a particular issue in office buildings due to internal heat gains from computers and other electrical equipmen t. In addition, buildings in London are affected by the urban heat island, which is likely to intensify with warmer summer temperatures, reducing the capacity for night-time cooling of buildings. This paper proposes various passive design strategies which aim to address both mitigation (by reducing carbon emissions) and adaptation (by improving human comfort and reducing energy consumption). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The aim of the present work is to estimate the carbon footprint of the Greek electricity sector and the associated damages. This is being realized by quantifying the external cost related with the climate change airborne emissions (i.e. carbon dioxide) generated during all stages of the power plants life cycle in Greece. For this purpose, the paper applies the EcoSenseLE tool, together with the basic principles of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approach. The examined external cost has been calculated for seven types of power plants. Results show that hydro and wind power plants have an excellent performance; close to them is the performance of PV and biomass-fired power plants. The performance of natural gas-fired power plants is good, while the performance of oil-fired power plants is, as it is expected poor. Lignite clearly has the worst performance, which affects the average external cost of the sector, since it is the dominant energy source in electricity production in Greece. Regarding the life cycle stages, for thermal systems, the climate change external cost is primarily made of CO2 emitted at the power plant, while in hydro, wind and PV systems, it is totally associated with the plant construction stage. Moreover, the paper includes also issues regarding the evolution of the examined footprint within the next years, considering the various Greek national policies and measures that have been announced and started to be realized; the cost/benefit analysis (CBA) of these policies and measures based on this footprint; and the investigation if this CBA is being affected by the CO2 abatement cost associated with the various external cost estimation approaches. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries (REDD+) is regarded by its proponents as one of the more efficient and cost effective ways to mitigate climate change. There was further progress toward the implementation of this mechanism at the 16th Conference of Parties (COP) in Cancun in December 2010. Many countries in southern African, including South Africa, have not been integrated (do not participate) into the UN-REDD+ programme, probably due to their low forest cover and national rates of deforestation. This paper discusses the potential contribution of REDD+ activities to the South African Government''s pledge of reducing national greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 34% below business as usual by 2020. A number of issues such as complex land tenure system, limited forest cover and other conflicting environmental issues present challenges for REDD+ in South Africa. Despite these genuine concerns, REDD+ remains a practical strategy to contribute to climate change mitigation for South Africa. The paper raises the need for development of a variety of emission reduction programmes – not only in the energy sector. The paper also assesses several national options and opportunities towards a working REDD+ mechanism. It concludes by identifying key mechanisms for moving forward to prepare for REDD+ actions in South Africa and raises the urgent need for national dialogue between stakeholders and institutions to evaluate the feasibility of making use of the mechanism in South Africa and the Southern African Development Cooperation (SADC) region. The paper further addresses possible synergies and conflicts between the national climate change and forestry policies towards REDD+ development. It suggests that REDD+ should be part of the national dialogue on policy to respond to climate change and should be integrated into the national flagship programmes that the national climate change white paper seeks to implement. A multiple-benefit REDD+ initiative for South Africa can benefit from these international financial initiatives. It is anticipated that this initiative will provide a platform to enhance policy, institutional and technical stakeholder capacities to access financial incentives that may lead to sound environmental practises. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Marginal abatement cost (MAC) curves are a commonly used policy tool indicating emission abatement potential and associated abatement costs. They have been extensively used for a range of environmental issues in different countries and are increasingly applied to climate change policy. However in the past, decisions in the complex field of climate policy have been partially based on MAC curves with methodological shortcomings. This paper investigates how their simplistic use has been misleading and finds that the limits of the MAC curve concept can lead to biased decision making. Nevertheless, MAC curves are a useful policy tool, if not relied on exclusively, providing an illustrative guide for subsequent analysis especially for iterative policy making as more information on costs and policy effectiveness is discovered. This paper identifies some steps to overcome present shortcomings in the generation of MAC curves. These include a systems approach to capture interactions, consideration of ancillary benefits, a better representation of uncertainties and representation of cumulative emission abatement to address time-related interactions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Methane emission from livestock manure is increasingly contributing to the global green house gas emissions. In this paper the methane emission from cattle, pig, sheep, goat and chicken manure in four West African countries; Nigeria, Ghana, Burkina Faso and Mali were estimated. A systematic estimation of the methane emission was done based on the livestock production projections by FAO from 1998 to 2008 and guidelines provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). During this period, cattle were found to have emitted more methane followed by pigs, goats, sheep and chicken in that order. A total of about 845 Gg of methane was emitted by the livestock during the period of which cattle contributed about 40%, whereas pigs, goats, sheep and chicken contributed 21.2%, 18.7%, 13.1% and 6.6% respectively. The methane emission from manure management in these countries increased from 64.1 Gg in 1998 to 90.5 Gg in 2008, with an annual growth rate of 3.4% y−1. The methane estimated from livestock manure over the period was shown to be consistent with the linear group model which predicts that in 2018, 2.4 Mt CO2-eq will be emitted increasing to 3.0 Mt CO2-eq in 2028 if the mechanism of manure management remains unchanged. This paper reveals that generating methane from the manure produced by the livestock under controlled conditions could supplement the energy needs, increase Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and consequently reduce the direct impact of methane on climate change. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Methane from livestock manure accounts for ∼6.6% of total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the United States, and 1.1% of total emissions in Canada. Methane is 25 times more potent than CO2 as a GHG and is emitted into the atmosphere from enteric emissions and manure. Livestock operators can reduce CH4 emissions and may qualify for credits for its capture by utilizing manure management practices such as anaerobic digesters. Thus, livestock producers can play a role in reducing GHG emissions while also earning C offset credits. This paper has two related objectives. First, using data from Canada, we explore the economics of adoption of anaerobic digesters for Canadian dairy and hog producers. Second, using this example, we explore the institutional framework in place for livestock based GHG emissions and the sources of uncertainties facing both producers and consumers with regard to C offsets. From these two objectives we hope to better understand the potential gains for livestock producers, and consumers of CH4 based offsets, and identify potential institutional innovations needed to allow the offset market to function efficiently. This paper is part of the special issue entitled: Greenhouse Gases in Animal Agriculture – Finding a Balance between Food and Emissions, Guest Edited by T.A. McAllister, Section Guest Editors; K.A. Beauchemin, X. Hao, S. McGinn and Editor for Animal Feed Science and Technology, P.H. Robinson. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: At present, the notion is generally accepted that societies have to combat climate change. The reduction of CO2-emissions, an important cause for global warming, has become a priority, and consequently there is increasing pressure on governments and industries to come forward with initiatives to reduce CO2-emissions. This is highly relevant for the transport sector, as the share of transportation is still increasing, while other sectors are reducing their CO2-footprint. The main purpose of this paper is to present a methodology to analyse the CO2-emissions from container terminals, illustrated by the Port of Rotterdam. The objective of this paper is twofold. Firstly, the development of a methodology to analyse and gain a better understanding of the CO2-emissions by container terminals in port areas is described. Secondly, the most effective solutions to reduce CO2-emissions by container terminals in port areas are identified. The study provides insight into the processes of container transshipment at the terminals and the contribution of these processes to the CO2-emissions of the container terminals. Using these insights, potential solutions to reduce the CO2 at the terminals are identified and policy proposals are made for the operators of existing terminals and for governments. The most effective measure for CO2 reduction is undoubtedly the adaptation of the terminal layout as in the example of the Rotterdam Shortsea Terminal. This makes it possible to reduce the CO2-emissions of the current terminals by nearly 70 per cent. The other perspective is the incorporation of mixing 30 per cent biofuels with the presently used diesel. This results in a reduction of CO2-emissions by between 13 and 26 per cent per terminal and a reduction of the emissions of the total container sector by 21 per cent. On the basis of these findings, concrete recommendations are made to reducing CO2-emissions at container terminals. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: With the increasing concern about climate change, the public, industry and government are showing increased interest towards reduction of CO2 emissions. Geological storage of CO2 is perceived to be one of the most promising methods that could allow significant reduction in CO2 emissions over the short and medium term. One major concern against geological storage of CO2 is the possibility of its leakage. Carbon dioxide under the pressure and temperature conditions encountered in typical deep aquifers remains more buoyant than water. One process that could lead to permanent trapping of CO2 is one that includes geochemical reactions leading to the formation of solid minerals. However, the time-scale of such reactions is perceived to be centuries to millennia. In contrast, the kinetics of CO2-hydrate formation–that leads to trapping of CO2 in the solid form–is quite fast, providing the opportunity for secure storage of CO2. In this paper and its companion, two different geological settings that are suitable for formation of CO2 hydrate are investigated. In this paper storage of CO2 beneath the ocean floor is studied, while storage in depleted gas reservoirs is studied in the companion paper. It has been suggested that CO2 may be accumulated in the depressions on the ocean floor, where pressure and temperature conditions are such that either liquid CO2 would accumulate or CO2 hydrates would form. However, there have been significant concerns about the accompanying change in pH and its adverse effect on the ocean ecosystem. In this paper, permanent trapping of CO2 at a depth of a few hundred meters beneath the ocean floor, where the CO2 is thought to be of little or no harm to the ocean ecosystem, is studied. Based on density calculations, Schrag and his co-workers have shown that for oceans that are deeper than approximately, CO2 density at the ocean floor is more than the surrounding water. With increased depth below the ocean floor and as a result of increased temperature, the density of CO2 reduces faster than that of water such that at some depth below the ocean floor, CO2 will be lighter than the surrounding water. Injection of CO2 at such depths or deeper intervals will lead to rise of the CO2 until it arrives at a depth where its density becomes heavier than water. The zone above this depth, where CO2 becomes heavier than water is called the negative buoyancy zone. Beneath the negative buoyancy zone, the CO2 is naturally trapped by a gravity barrier. Furthermore, as CO2 is rising towards this depth, it could pass through conditions where CO2 hydrates form. Formation of CO2 hydrate will further reduce formation permeability and introduce a second barrier against CO2 rise, even before it arrives at the boundary of the negative buoyancy zone. Under dynamic conditions of injection and hydrate formation, the initial state of pressure and temperature is perturbed, affecting the negative buoyancy zone. Simulation studies are presented to investigate (i) the changes in pressure as a result of injection that could push CO2 upwards into the negative buoyancy zone, and (ii) the increase in temperature as a result of formation of hydrates. Through a case study, we report numerical simulation studies that indicate that injection of CO2 at a depth of approximately 800 m below the ocean floor leads to the rise of CO2 until a depth of approximately 360 m below the ocean floor, where hydrates will form reducing the formation permeability. Any CO2 that might migrate further upwards could do so for another 135 m before it arrives at the negative buoyancy zone. These simulation studies suggest that total CO2 emissions of large power plants may be stored at such a site. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract Relative humidity (RH) is one of the most important parameters in the study of fog-haze. This paper first estimates the contributions of the key quantities (temperature, water vapor, air pollutant) and their combinations to the relative change of RH , and then investigates the relationships of RH with the long-term variation of haze and fog days based on the meteorological data in the Yangtze River Delta over the period 1970–2010. The main conclusions are as follows. (1) Temperature is the foremost factor influencing RH , with the effect of specific humidity and direct contribution of air pollutant being second and third. (2) RH shows a prominent descending trend in the Yangtze River Delta, due to global warming and the 'analogous heat island effect' (AHIE). (3) Decreasing RH was responsible for the reduction of fog days. The AHIE can explain the phenomenon in which fog days in metropolises are less than in small cities. (4) Granger causality analysis of inter-annual variation further shows that increasing aerosol loading Ganger-causes the increasing haze days, rather than meteorological parameters such as RH. High RH would enhance hygroscopic growth of particle and then suppress the planet boundary layer height (PBLH) and lead to more haze days, lower PBLH further increases aerosols and RH , this positive feedback mechanism can be established under the condition of aerosol loading being relatively stable and beyond the threshold for haze formation. (5) If aerosol emissions maintain the status quo, climate cooling would result in serious fog-haze events occurring more frequently in Yangtze River Delta. The research provide a scientific basis for understanding the influence of meteorological factors on RH and the connection between the variation of long term fog-haze days and RH under the background of climate change. Highlights • Factors affecting relatively humidity (RH). • Relative changes of RH caused by three factors and their combinations. • Reasons for the long-term variations of haze and fog days. • Climate cooling may intensify the frequency of "fog-haze" weather. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Energy/emission intensity indicators measure the relationship between economic development and climate change. These intensity indicators are preferentially used in assessment criteria for mitigation goals in places such as China. This paper investigates the driving factors of changes in the national CO 2 emission intensity and their contributions to reductions at the sector level in China from 2002 to 2012 using multiplicative structural decomposition analysis (SDA) and attribution analysis. Both Leontief and Ghosh input-output models are used in the study. The empirical results indicate: 1) the energy intensity effect is the main driver that decreases the aggregate emission intensity from both the demand and supply sides; 2) structural effects, such as the energy structure effect and domestic Ghosh structure effect, promote the increase in aggregate emission intensity principally; and 3) to a large extent, sector "smelting and pressing of metals", "manufacture of non-metallic mineral products" and "chemical industry" are the top three sectors that contribute to the negative energy intensity effect. Ultimately, several discussions and conclusions associated with the empirical results, result stability and research extensibility are presented. Highlights • Both Leontief and Ghosh models were adopted to study China's CO 2 intensity. • Multiplicative decomposition was applied to study the intensity changes in 2002–2012. • Energy intensity effect was the major drivers to reduce China's emission intensity. • The structural effects as a whole contributed to the increase of emission intensity. • The domestic allocation structure can be adjusted and optimized preferentially. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The requirement to reduce emissions to avoid potentially dangerous climate change implies a dilemma for societies heavily dependent on fossil fuels. Reducing emissions will necessitate the transition from relatively high EROI dispatchable fossil fuels to a combination of relatively low EROI intermittent renewables and geographically limited non-intermittent renewables. As renewable capacity requires energy to construct there is an initial fossil fuel cost to creating new renewable capacity. An insufficiently rapid transition to renewables will imply a scenario in which it is impossible to avoid either transgressing emissions ceilings or facing energy shortages; we term this the energy-emissions trap. In this paper, we construct a mathematical model, termed EETRAP, that builds the EROI metric and the energy characteristics of renewable generation into a macroeconomic framework. EETRAP is used for simulation analysis to test how differing assumptions about the EROI of intermittent renewables will affect the time-path of renewable investment necessary to escape the energy-emissions trap. For all runs of the model, the renewable investment rate by 2050 is significantly larger than the current energy investment rate. For declining intermittent renewable EROI, the renewable investment rate crowds out other forms of investment leading to a declining economic growth rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Ecosystems and the atmosphere: This review describes the state of understanding the processes involved in the exchange of trace gases and aerosols between the earth''s surface and the atmosphere. The gases covered include NO, NO2, HONO, HNO3, NH3, SO2, DMS, Biogenic VOC, O3, CH4, N2O and particles in the size range 1 nm–10 μm including organic and inorganic chemical species. The main focus of the review is on the exchange between terrestrial ecosystems, both managed and natural and the atmosphere, although some new developments in ocean–atmosphere exchange are included. The material presented is biased towards the last decade, but includes earlier work, where more recent developments are limited or absent. New methodologies and instrumentation have enabled, if not driven technical advances in measurement. These developments have advanced the process understanding and upscaling of fluxes, especially for particles, VOC and NH3. Examples of these applications include mass spectrometric methods, such as Aerosol Mass Spectrometry (AMS) adapted for field measurement of atmosphere–surface fluxes using micrometeorological methods for chemically resolved aerosols. Also briefly described are some advances in theory and techniques in micrometeorology. For some of the compounds there have been paradigm shifts in approach and application of both techniques and assessment. These include flux measurements over marine surfaces and urban areas using micrometeorological methods and the up-scaling of flux measurements using aircraft and satellite remote sensing. The application of a flux-based approach in assessment of O3 effects on vegetation at regional scales is an important policy linked development secured through improved quantification of fluxes. The coupling of monitoring, modelling and intensive flux measurement at a continental scale within the NitroEurope network represents a quantum development in the application of research teams to address the underpinning science of reactive nitrogen in the cycling between ecosystems and the atmosphere in Europe. Some important developments of the science have been applied to assist in addressing policy questions, which have been the main driver of the research agenda, while other developments in understanding have not been applied to their wider field especially in chemistry-transport models through deficiencies in obtaining appropriate data to enable application or inertia within the modelling community. The paper identifies applications, gaps and research questions that have remained intractable at least since 2000 within the specialized sections of the paper, and where possible these have been focussed on research questions for the coming decade. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Recently, in the economics literature, several papers have put forward arguments for using a declining discount rate in social-cost benefit analysis. This paper examines the impact of employing a declining discount rate on the social cost of carbon—the marginal social damage from a ton of emitted carbon. Six declining discounting schemes are implemented in the FUND 2.8 integrated assessment model, including the recent amendments to the Green Book of HM Treasury (Treasury, H.M., 2003. The Greenbook: Appraisal and Evaluation in Central Government. TSO, London). We find that using a declining schedule of discount rates increases the social cost of carbon estimate by as little as 10% or by as much as a factor of 40, depending upon the scenario selected. Although the range of plausible estimates is large, using declining discounting schemes in FUND 2.8 in most cases does not yield values at the £70/tC level suggested by UK DEFRA [Clarkson, R., Deyes, K., 2002. Estimating the social cost of carbon emissions. Government Economic Service Working Paper. HM Treasury, London]. Indeed, only at the higher end of the values of social cost of carbon found here would many climate change related policies – such as the Kyoto Protocol – pass a cost-benefit analysis. This conclusion, however, does not necessarily undermine the ethical and political economic reasons for supporting international collective action on climate change. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Buildings are significant drivers of climate change, generating one third of global greenhouse gas emissions. When new buildings are constructed to high performance standards, increased rates of building replacement spurred by rising property values can raise the operating efficiency of building stocks. However, it can take years before the embodied greenhouse gas emissions associated with new construction are offset by more efficient operations. This paper calculates the carbon dioxide emission payback period of newly constructed efficient single family homes in Vancouver, British Columbia. The average carbon dioxide emission payback period of 168 years for a typical high efficiency new home renders it unlikely that emission savings will be realized before it is replaced. A statistical model called the Teardown Index is presented, which indicates that replacing older poorly performing homes with new high efficiency homes in Vancouver will result in 1.3–2.8 million tonnes of additional carbon dioxide equivalent emissions between 2017 and 2050. For each percent increase to the compound annual growth rate of property values, an additional 150 thousand tonnes of CO 2 e will be released between 2017-2050. The findings suggest that current policies aimed at reducing emissions through new high efficiency buildings should be reconsidered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are currently at the crux of political, environmental, technological, and cultural discussions due to climate change. A drastic reduction of GHG emissions is needed in order to mitigate potentially catastrophic climate change impacts. Thus, thoroughly understanding emission sources is imperative. A disaggregated analysis of Canada’s future GHG emission projections has not yet been conducted. The objectives in this paper are to assess disaggregated GHG emissions in Canada for the years 2014, 2030, and 2050, and analyze the results through Sankey diagrams. Emissions are calculated using a bottom-up multi-regional accounting-based Long-range Energy Alternative Planning systems model. Each major economic sector in Canada is analyzed including the electricity generation, residential, commercial and institutional, industrial, transportation, and agriculture sectors. The emissions released in these sectors are traced to the resources and end-uses responsible. Results are presented for Canada and for provinces individually. GHG emissions contained in exported resources are evaluated. Results show that Canada’s business-as-usual GHG emissions will grow from 732 million tonnes in 2014 to 780 and 798 million tonnes in 2030 and 2050, respectively. Canada exports more emissions contained in resources than it emits. Per capita emissions intensity will fall by 14% between 2014 and 2050. Results are compared to climate targets and key areas of GHG mitigation potential are identified. Alberta’s oil and gas sector and Ontario’s transportation sector are the two single largest sectoral sources of emissions by 2050. This research can help policy makers, innovators, and the public better understand GHG emissions, which can lead to more effective GHG mitigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Meeting the commitments made in the Paris Agreement on climate change will require different approaches in different countries. However, a common feature in many contexts relates to the continued and sometimes increasing significance of the carbon footprints of urban centres. These footprints consider both production or territorial (i.e. Scope 1 and 2) emissions, and consumption or extra-territorial (i.e. Scope 3) emissions. Although a growing number of cities have adopted targets for their production-based emissions, very few have even started to analyse or address their consumption-based emissions. This presents a potential challenge for urban policymaking if consumption emissions rise while production emissions fall, and for climate mitigation more broadly if emissions are effectively migrating to areas without carbon reduction targets or capabilities. To explore these issues, in this paper we analyse and compare production- and consumption-based emissions accounts for urban centres in China, the UK and the US. Results show that per-capita income and population density are strong predictors of consumption-based emissions levels, and consumption-based emissions appear to diminish but not decouple with higher per-capita incomes. In addition, results show that per-capita income is a predictor of net emissions - or the difference between production- and consumption-based accounts - suggesting that continuing increases in per capita income levels may drive the ‘leakage’ of urban emissions. These findings highlight a risk in placing too much faith in city-level climate strategies focused only on production-based emissions, and stress the importance of new city-level initiatives that focus on consumption-based emissions, especially in cities that are shifting from producer to consumer city status. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Choosing an effective and efficient building design option for energy management as well as for reducing greenhouse-gas (GHG) emissions associated with a building life-cycle is always highly challenging to any designers in the battle to tackle global climate change issues. Researchers around the world are thriving in building optimization models for developing strategies that would result in an overall reduction of a building's energy consumption aside from decreasing GHG emissions. Despite using similar input data sources, challenges to get similar results which are simulated from different software to assess environmental and financial aspects in a life-cycle of a system are still the dilemma to all sustainable development designers. Another difficulty, which happens in the progress of sustainable development in Australia, is that designers may have to follow a variety of green building rating tools to minimize environmental footprint and to increase the efficiency of buildings operation during their lifetime. Time will be consumed if design options are not appropriately and automatically calculated and assessed. In order to obtain building's life-cycle assessment (LCA) along with to achieve Green Star's certificate, choosing an appropriate program to calculate life-cycle energy consumption, life-cycle cost and life-cycle GHG emissions are a necessity to designers. This paper presents a comprehensive review of all considerable researches focus on the biologically inspired algorithms to different fields of sustainable building designs and their module modelling development in recent years (up to 2016). Major fields are reviewed in detail, including building envelope design, comprehensive optimization of several areas simultaneously as well as configuration and control of building energy consumption. The outcomes of this study can assist researchers to choose which program is the best suitable for their study on sustainable assessment. In Australia, based on these design, practitioners can decide the optimum option for their project which can achieve their sustainability goals as well as can be granted the Green Star's certificate less sophisticated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a need for alternative fuels in the shipping sector for two main motivations: to deliver a reduction in local pollutants and comply with existing regulation; and to mitigate climate change and cut greenhouse gas emissions. However, any alternative fuel must meet a range of criteria to become a viable option. Key among them is the requirement that it can deliver emissions reductions over its full life-cycle. For a set of fuels, comprising both conventional and alternative fuels, together with associated production pathways, this paper presents a life-cycle assessment with respect to six emissions species: local pollutants sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter; and greenhouse gases carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. While the analysis demonstrates that no widely available fuel exists currently to deliver on both motivations, some alternative fuel options have the potential, if key barriers can be overcome. Hydrogen or other synthetic fuels rely on decarbonisation of both energy input to production and other feedstock materials to deliver reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. Similarly, bio-derived fuels can be an abatement option, but only if it can be ensured that land-use change whilst growing biomass does not impact wider potential savings and the sector is able to compete sufficiently for their use. These examples show that crucial barriers are located upstream in the respective fuel life-cycle and that the way to overcome them may reside beyond the scope of the shipping sector alone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to avoid dangerous climate change greenhouse gas accounting methods are needed to inform decisions on mitigation action. This paper explores the differences between ‘attributional’ and ‘consequential’ greenhouse gas accounting methods, focusing on attributional corporate greenhouse gas inventories, consequential life cycle assessment, and project/policy greenhouse gas accounting. The case study of a 6 MW bioheat plant is used to explore the different results and information these methods provide. The findings show that attributional corporate inventories may not capture the full consequences of the decision in question, even with full scope 3 reporting – and are therefore not sufficient for mitigation planning. Although consequential life cycle assessment and the project/policy level method both aim to show the full consequences of the decision, the project/policy level method has a number of advantages, including the provision of a transparent baseline scenario and the distribution of emissions/removals over time. The temporal distribution of emissions/removals is important as the carbon debt of the bioheat plant can exceed 100 years, making the intervention incompatible with 2050 reduction targets. An additional contribution from the study is the use of normative decision theory to further develop the idea that the uncertainty associated with bioenergy outcomes is itself a highly decision-relevant finding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aerosols over the Tibetan Plateau (TP) play an important role in the regional and global climate change and ecological environment. The Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research Program (STEP) carried out observation experiment at the Nam Co Station for Multisphere Observation and Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences (Nam Co Station, 30°46′N, 90°59′E, 4730 m) in the central TP from August 5 to September 11, 2020. This paper investigated the aerosol optical properties and its potential sources over Nam Co region. The main results are as follow: the average aerosol optical depth was 0.025 during the observation period; the average black carbon (BC) concentration and aerosol number concentration was 37 ng/m3 and 129 N/cm3, respectively; the diurnal variation and vertical distribution of aerosol were affected by the local meteorological elements. Frequent southerly winds during the summer monsoon led to a certain contribution of South Asia to the BC concentration in Nam Co region. And particles from the Taklimakan Desert led to dramatic increasing of aerosol number concentration over Nam Co region. The aerosol optical characteristics and influencing factors over the central TP were analyzed, which is beneficial to further study the influence of aerosols over the TP on regional and global weather and climate. • Optical properties of aerosol over Nam Co station were observed by the STEP of China. • Nam Co region was generally influenced by BC from South Asia, local pollution emissions and north particles. • The average of AOD, depolarization ratio and BC over Nam Co station was 0.026, 0.033 and 37 ng/m3, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alleviating global climate change requires the development and adoption of green innovation. This study compares the impact of cooperative and independent green innovation on carbon reduction based on the panel data covering 252 cities in China from 2003 to 2019. We examine the heterogeneous impacts of cooperative green innovation across units, and explain the transmission mechanism. The two-way fixed effects model and interaction model are adopted. Results show that: (1) Cooperative green innovation can reduce carbon emissions more effectively than independent green innovation. A 1% increase in cooperative green patents (inventions) will reduce carbon emissions by 0.023% (0.037%), while independent green patents or inventions play a weak role. (2) For research and development (R&D) partners, firms' cooperative green innovation has a stronger positive effect on carbon reduction than research organizations. The carbon reduction effect of cooperative green innovation is better for listed firms and universities. (3) Mechanism analysis shows cooperative green innovation can reduce carbon emissions by improving the industrial structure and decreasing energy intensity. These effects are stronger when cities have more talent, funds and higher marketability. (4) We also find that listed firms' cooperative green inventions with a ten-year lag can still reduce carbon emissions effectively. Cooperative green innovation is conducive to carbon reduction among eastern and central cities of China. [Display omitted] • This paper explores the impact of green innovation on carbon reduction from the new perspective of cooperation. • Cooperative green innovation is more effective than independent green innovation in carbon reduction. • Cooperative green innovation of listed firms and universities is more conducive to carbon reduction. • Cooperative green innovation can optimize the industrial structure and decrease energy intensity for better carbon reduction. • Cooperative green innovation with more talent, funds and market has better carbon reduction effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Particulate matter (PM) adversely affects air quality, human health and the climate, and it is more prevalent in urban areas. Few efforts have been made to quantify the impact of trade on PM concentrations in an urban economy. This paper presents an analysis of the impacts of domestic and international trade on PM emissions in Beijing using a three-scale input–output model, supported by the national and global embodied energy-related PM 2.5 , PM 10 and TSP (total suspended particulate) emission intensities. The results found that the total energy-related PM 2.5 , PM 10 and TSP emissions (production-based) in Beijing were 106 Gg, 163 Gg and 347 Gg, respectively, in 2010. Of these amounts, 48% (51 Gg, 74 Gg and 146 Gg, respectively) was associated with local demand, 42% (44 Gg, 73 Gg and 168 Gg, respectively) was associated with domestic exports, and 10% (11 Gg, 16 Gg and 33 Gg, respectively) was associated with international exports. From a consumption perspective, Beijing’s PM 2.5 , PM 10 and TSP emissions were more than double the production-based PM emissions. Approximately 75% (172 Gg, 311 Gg and 786 Gg, respectively) of the consumption-based PM emissions were domestically outsourced to other provinces, primarily via the import of metal (32 Gg, 58 Gg and 151 Gg), construction (26 Gg, 36 Gg and 91 Gg) and chemical products (16 Gg, 30 Gg and 75 Gg), and 3% (8 Gg, 10 Gg and 24 Gg, respectively) of consumption-based PM emissions were outsourced abroad. Our results indicate that domestic trade plays a dominant role in Beijing’s PM 2.5 emissions. These findings suggest that more national and sub-national government should co-ordinate design and implement effective mechanisms to alleviate urban air pollution because of the significant effects of interprovincial and international trade on local emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Addressing climate change requires the efforts of all countries with common but differentiated responsibilities. The mitigation responsibilities one country takes greatly depends on its national emission inventories. As a good complement to the production-based accounting (PBA) principle, consumption-based accounting (CBA) principle has been widely concerned. However, few studies focus on emissions equity issues temporally and spatially. In this paper, we explore the characteristics of production-based and consumption-based CO 2 emissions for 14 major economies through multiple-dimension comparisons to get insight into the emissions equity comparisons among major emitters. In particular, four categories of economies with different dynamic features are divided based on their percentage differences between PBA and CBA emissions. Demographical and economic variables are additionally taken into consideration. The results indicate that France and Russia hold extreme characteristic on evaluating the emission difference between two principles, while China and Chinese Taiwan reveal uniquely increasingly larger gaps between two principle emissions. Besides, the per capita CBA emissions grows more prominently and possesses a more obviously positive correlation with their own per capita GDP which confirms that CBA principle is potentially attractive for estimating national emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With increasing scarcity of fossil fuels and climate change caused by man-made carbon emissions, energy and carbon efficiency are of increasing importance for manufacturing firms. Regarding their energy use manufacturing firms can improve their carbon performance either by reducing energy use or by switching to energy sources that cause less carbon emissions. Energy management systems are said to support improvements in carbon performance, however their effect has hardly been addressed to date by academia. Based on data from 108 German automotive suppliers, this paper investigates the impact of an energy management system on manufacturing firms' operations practice as well as carbon and economic performance. The research model developed for this is evaluated using partial least squares. The results indicate that energy management has a positive effect on the adoption of low carbon production and logistics practices and through this indirectly on carbon and economic performance. The effect is found to be stronger for certified energy management systems. Surprisingly no proof is found for a direct effect of an energy management system on carbon performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The issue of climate change has become an increasing concern for the international community. At the same time, climate change and, particularly, global warming affects the amount of energy required in China and the structure of this demand, thereby influencing the amount of CO 2 (carbon dioxide) emissions produced. To investigate the possible influence of climate change on China's CO 2 emissions, this paper utilizes the degree-day method to calculate the heating degree days (HDD) and cooling degree days (CDD) in 29 provinces in China from 1995 to 2011. A series of appropriate econometric models are subsequently estimated to measure the impact of climate change on CO 2 emissions per capita. To enhance the explanatory power of the estimation results, several indicators, such as income per capita, industry structure, urbanization rate and population density, are incorporated in the estimation equations as control variables. The estimation results indicate that the feedback effect of climate change on China's carbon emissions is statistically significant but not large in magnitude. During the sample period between 1995 and 2011, approximately 1.687% of China's increased total CO 2 emissions could be attributed to climate change. Moreover, the impacts of climate change on different regions of China are notably different. For example, the influence of HDD on CO 2 emissions per capita are most significant in the middle and southern regions, while the impacts of CDD are most significant in the eastern and northern regions. However, there is no obvious evidence that climate change has affected CO 2 emissions in the western region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Results are reported for sampling non-volatile particulate matter from field tests during the NASA led APEX III campaign. This paper reports observations of particulate emissions collected from a suite of jet engine aircraft to assess differences and similarities in soot macro- micro- and nanostructure using TEM. Aggregates are compact, primary particle sizes varied and nanostructure is mixed. Comparisons are made to soot from a laboratory flame as a well-studied reference. Results are interpreted in terms of turbulence interacting with the different stages of particle formation and growth with implications for atmospheric processing and climate impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of greenhouse gases on climate variation set policy challenges for the energy industry – the largest greenhouse gas contributor globally. In this context, the energy industry is being subjected to reforms focussing on the environment, internalisation of emission costs and the promotion of cleaner technologies. To overcome the challenges posed by the emission of greenhouse gases, governments have implemented mitigation policies in the power supply industries. Most policy instruments include either financial incentives or goals and standards; and these generate impacts on electricity prices and consumer behaviour. This paper models policies' effects on prices and demand, through an integrated demand and supply analysis for the Colombian case. While simulation of carbon taxes shows important reductions of fossil-fuelled power capacity, a feed-in tariff policy promotes clean technologies, though not significantly reducing use of fossil technologies. When applied simultaneously, policy has a greater impact on both emission reductions and the diffusion of clean technologies, while only increasing electricity prices slightly. Even when price-elasticity of demand is low, such policies may have a significant effect on the penetration of renewables and emissions. Furthermore, this structured modelling of policy helps explain how the ultimate intended goal – sustainable emissions reduction – might be achieved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A framework and set of methods to provide quantification of carbon footprint for an office in Singapore is presented in this work. As office operations become the center of many organization's activities, a rising awareness of climate change puts the focus on the carbon footprint of office operations. Various international standards have provided guidelines in assessing the carbon footprint of organizations. However, a lack of explicit formulation and procedure in these standards makes them difficult to apply. Furthermore, organizations that are just starting to assess their footprint may not have the resources and trained personnel to perform a full-scale assessment. To fill this gap, the framework proposed in this paper categorizes the emission sources from an office into several categories: core devices, shared resources, pantry, and transportation; and a set of quantification methods then guide the practitioner in a visual manner to do their office carbon footprint. A case study was conducted with an organization in Singapore. Results showed that the organization has a monthly office carbon footprint of 2306.57 kg CO 2 e, with major emissions coming from the air-conditioning system and private car usage. The study showed that the method can be used to assess the overall emissions, as well as identifying the major emission sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scientists have argued that no more than 275 GtC ( IPCC, 2013 ) of the world’s reserves of fossil fuels of 746 GtC can be produced in this century if the world is to restrict anthropogenic climate change to ≤2 °C. This has raised concerns about the risk of these reserves becoming “stranded assets” and creating a dangerous “carbon bubble” with serious impacts on global financial markets, leading in turn to discussions of appropriate investor and consumer actions. However, previous studies have not always clearly distinguished between reserves and resources, nor differentiated reserves held by investor-owned and state-owned companies with the capital, infrastructure, and capacity to develop them in the short term from those held by nation-states that may or may not have such capacity. This paper analyzes the potential emissions of CO 2 and methane from the proved reserves as reported by the world's largest producers of oil, natural gas, and coal. We focus on the seventy companies and eight government-run industries that produced 63% of the world’s fossil fuels from 1750 to 2010 ( Heede, 2014 ), and have the technological and financial capacity to develop these reserves. While any reserve analysis is subject to uncertainty, we demonstrate that production of these reported reserves will result in emissions of 440 GtC of carbon dioxide, or 160% of the remaining 275 GtC carbon budget. Of the 440 GtC total, the 42 investor-owned oil, gas, and coal companies hold reserves with potential emissions of 44 GtC (16% of the remaining carbon budget, hereafter RCB), whereas the 28 state-owned entities possess reserves of 210 GtC (76% of the RCB). This analysis suggests that what may be needed to prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference (DAI) with the climate system differs when one considers the state-owned entities vs. the investor-owned entities. For the former, there is a profound risk involved simply in the prospect of their extracting their proved reserves. For the latter, the risk arises not so much from their relatively small proved reserves, but from their on-going exploration and development of new fossil fuel resources. For preventing DAI overall, effective action must include the state-owned companies, the investor-owned companies, and governments. However, given that the majority of the world's reserves are coal resources owned by governments with little capacity to extract them in the near term, we suggest that the more immediate urgency lies with the private sector, and that investor and consumer pressure should focus on phasing out these companies’ on-going exploration programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carbon emission from municipal solid waste (MSW) treatment is one of the anthropogenic sources to cause climate change, which accounts for 3–5% of global greenhouse gas emissions according to the report of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). At the same time, the gases and liquid discharged from MSW treatment can also cause other environmental impacts, such as climate change, photochemical ozone synthesis, and acidification, especially in huge city with huge population as Beijing, China. This paper proposed an eco-efficiency analysis method, which aimed to yield maximum overall environmental improvement per unit investment cost during its life cycle processing. This method took the overall reduction in the environmental impact of MSW treatment using cost-effective techniques as the objective to optimize waste disposal systems. The separation ratio during MSW collection and the proportion of techniques used for treatment were the major indicators for optimization measures. For Beijing, an increase in the waste separation ratio during collection proved to be the most effective measure, with an eco-efficiency score of 0.144. Adjustment of the proportion of treatment techniques used was less eco-efficient, with an increase in the proportion of composting being the most effective approach. Based on real needs, the objective should be to reduce the proportion of landfills used and increase the amount of composting and incineration. This optimization measure had the lowest cost and an eco-efficiency score of 0.0461, which is 60% higher than that for the measure with the lowest eco-efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Decision strategies aim at enabling reasonable decisions in cases of uncertain policy decision problems which do not meet the conditions for applying standard decision theory. This paper focuses on decision strategies that account for uncertainties by deciding whether a proposed list of policy options should be accepted or revised (scope strategies) and whether to decide now or later (timing strategies). They can be used in participatory approaches to structure the decision process. As a basis, we propose to classify the broad range of uncertainties affecting policy decision problems along two dimensions, source of uncertainty (incomplete information, inherent indeterminacy and unreliable information) and location of uncertainty (information about policy options, outcomes and values). Decision strategies encompass multiple and vague criteria to be deliberated in application. As an example, we discuss which decision strategies may account for the uncertainties related to nutritive technologies that aim at reducing methane (CH 4 ) emissions from ruminants as a means of mitigating climate change, limiting our discussion to published scientific information. These considerations not only speak in favour of revising rather than accepting the discussed list of options, but also in favour of active postponement or semi-closure of decision-making rather than closure or passive postponement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Robust understanding of possible trade-offs and synergies between climate change, energy and water sector policies is critical to achieving economically viable and environmentally sound agricultural production systems in a low-carbon water-constrained economy, in which greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are penalized and water savings rewarded. Accurate assessment of the potential costs/benefits of investment decisions can help to optimize the economic efficiency of agricultural production while minimizing environmental impacts. This paper presents a novel integrated framework, based on carbon and water accounting, which enables analysis of potential trade-offs between water savings, energy consumption, GHG emissions and economic costs/benefits associated with the adoption of new water efficient irrigation technologies. The framework was applied to an irrigated lucerne cropping system in eastern Australia and compares the costs/benefits of old roll-line sprinkler irrigation systems against new pressurized systems. Positive synergies were found with the adoption of the new technology, which saved both water and energy use, reduced total GHG emissions and resulted in net economic returns across a range of carbon prices. The results of this study provide support for an integrated evidence-based approach to policy development and strategic decision-making and for the prioritization of investments on both economic and environmental grounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the context of addressing climate change, the carbon emission trading scheme has become one of the main measures adopted by many countries and regions to achieve emission reduction goals. Noticing this current lack of research, based on a duopoly model, this paper quantitatively explores the impact of carbon offsetting scheme on both emission trading participants' profits and industry's output by drawing on advanced experience of carbon offsetting scheme from developed countries, such as US, Switzerland and EU, and thus provides a perspective for government to design optimal aggregate standard for carbon cap-and-trade. Results show a negative correlation between enterprises' carbon intensity and their equilibrium output in the product market, and indicate a threshold for the relative magnitude of the duopoly enterprises' carbon intensity, above which their absolute output will differ dramatically. The incorporation of carbon offsetting scheme into a non-offset quota trading scheme will reduce its equilibrium carbon price, thereby mitigate its negative impact on industry's total output in the product market by an either linear or quadratic form, depending on the design for the proportion ceiling of offsetting quota. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geoengineering, which is the intentional large-scale manipulation of the environment, has been suggested as an effective means of mitigating global warming from anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. In this paper, we will review and assess technical and theoretical aspects of land-based, atmosphere-based, ocean-based and space-based geoengineering schemes as well as their potential impacts on global climate and ecosystem. Most of the proposed geoengineering schemes carried out on land or in the ocean are to use physical, chemical or biological approaches to remove atmospheric CO 2 . These schemes are able to only sequester an amount of atmospheric CO 2 that is small compared with cumulative anthropogenic emissions. Most of geoengineering schemes carried out in the atmosphere or space are based on increasing planetary albedo. These schemes have relatively low costs and short lead times for technical implementation, and can act rapidly to reduce temperature anomalies caused by greenhouse gas emissions. The costs and benefits of geoengineering are likely to vary spatially over the planet with some countries and regions gaining considerably while others may be faced with a worse set of circumstances than would be the case without geoengineering. Since current research on geoengineering is limited and various international treaties may limit some geoengineering experiments in the real world, the Geoengineering Model Intercomparison Project (GeoMIP) provides a framework of coordinated experiments for all earth system modeling groups to test geoengineering schemes. However, these experiments used on a global scale have difficulty with accurate resolution of regional and local impacts, so future research on geoengineering is expect to be done by combining earth system models with regional climate models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anaerobic digestion (AD) of putrescible urban waste for energy recovery has seen rapid growth over recent years. In order to ascertain its systems scale sustainability, however, determination of the environmental fate of the large volume of digestate generated during the process is indispensable. This paper evaluates the environmental burdens to air associated with land applied food-based digestate in terms of primary pollutants (ammonia, nitrogen dioxide) and greenhouse gases (methane and nitrous oxide). The assessments have been made in two stages – first, the emissions from surface application of food-based digestate are quantified for the business as usual (BAU). In the next step, environmental burden minimisation potentials for the following three mitigation measures are estimated – mixed waste digestate (MWD), soil-incorporated digestate (SID), and post-methanated digestate (PMD). Overall, the mitigation scenarios demonstrated considerable NH 3 , CH 4 and N 2 O burden minimisation potentials, with positive implications for both climate change and urban pollution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper develops a tool for estimating energy-related CO 2 emissions from the world's cities based on regression models. The models are developed considering climatic (heating-degree-days) and urban design (land area per person) independent variables. The tool is applied on 3646 urban areas for estimating impacts on urban emissions of a) global transitioning to Electric Vehicles, b) urban density change and c) IPCC climate change scenarios. Results show that urban density decline can lead to significant increase in energy emissions (upto 346% in electricity & 428% in transportation at 2% density decline by 2050). Among the IPCC climate scenarios tested, A1B is the most effective in reducing growth of emissions (upto 12% in electricity & 35% in heating). The tool can further be improved by including more data in the regression models along with inclusion of other relevant emissions and climatic variables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Archetype development, model components and potential applications for UBEM are discussed. • Stochastic and dynamic occupancy models are among the most desired improvements for UBEM. • UBEM could be suitable for high accuracy predictions of future climate change scenarios. • Integration of socio-economic data in UBEM is promising but not currently applied. • Assigning value year from renovation records is tempting but could entail several pitfalls. Due to rapid urbanisation and the significant contribution of cities to worldwide energy use and greenhouse gas emissions, urban energy system planning is growing more important. Urban building energy modelling (UBEM) draws increasing attention in the energy modelling field due to its inherent capacities for modelling entire cities or building stocks, and the potential of varying data inputs, approaches and applications. This review aims to identify best practices and improvements for UBEM applications by examining previous research, with a focus on the currently least established approaches. Different archetype development procedures are analysed for common problems, six main under-developed input approaches or parameters are identified, and applications for future scenario development are surveyed. By analysing previous studies in related fields, this paper provides an overview of gaps in the published research and possible additions to future UBEM projects that can help expanding the existing modelling procedures. Comprehensive human behaviour models with additional aspects beyond occupant presence are identified as a major point of interest. Further research on socio-economic parameters, such as household income and demographics, are also suggested to further improve modelling. This study also underlines the potential for utilising UBEM as a tool for evaluating future climate change scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Activists and scholars increasingly blame neoliberalism for the failure to sharply reduce greenhouse gas emissions, but there is insufficient research that investigates the theoretical link between neoliberalism and climate paralysis. This paper seeks to fill that gap by presenting a coherent account of how neoliberal ideology has constrained policies to address climate change in the United States. As motivation, we first present evidence suggesting more neoliberal countries perform worse in addressing climate change. We then analyze how three tenets of neoliberal ideology—to decentralize democracy, defund public investment, and deregulate the economy—have stymied climate action in the United States. Finally, we discuss the Green New Deal as a decisively anti-neoliberal framework that seeks to wield the power of the federal government to pursue large-scale public investments and binding climate regulations for rapid decarbonization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]