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Northeast China played an irreplaceable role in population migrations and cultural exchanges in East Asia during the Paleolithic. This paper collected 182 archaeological sites to analyse the characteristics of spatial-temporal variations of Paleolithic human activities in Northeast China, and explored the driving mechanisms behind these variations in combination with the paleoenvironmental and archaeological studies. During the Lower Paleolithic, constrained by the relatively cold-dry climate and blocked by the Songnen paleo-lake basin, the population was sparse and distributed only near 40° N at the southern end of Northeast China. Upon entering the Middle Paleolithic, as humans developed greater tolerance to cold climates and adopted more sophisticated survival strategies with the application of small lithic tools, their numbers increased and geographical distribution expanded northward to 45° N at the central region of Northeast China. The Upper Paleolithic saw a considerable increase in population and expansion across almost all of Northeast China except for the eastern Inner Mongolia Plateau. We speculated that 50 ka and 30 ka BP were two key points, both of which may be associated with a significant increase in the frequency of migrations and communications among humans, and the widespread popularity of highly mobile microblade technology, respectively. In addition, the environmental analysis of archaeological sites revealed a continuous spread of Paleolithic humans to areas with higher elevations, steeper slopes, and lower temperatures. Meanwhile, they were becoming less reliant on water resources and were more widely conducting activities in open-air areas, showing that the environmental adaptability had been continuously improving over time. This study can provide a reference for the reconstruction of the migration history of early humans in East Asia, and is also of great significance for a comprehensive understanding of the evolutionary process of early human-environment interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The unavoidable wind power prediction error poses a challenge for wind power to participate in day-ahead scheduling plan. This paper proposes a two-stage correction method considering NWP wind speed and power correction. Firstly, this paper fully considers the historical similarity of NWP wind speed, and adopts the improved clustering distance for segment matching and wind speed correction based on the extracted most relevant trend component, which enhances the utilization of NWP information and avoids the randomness and uncertainty of the intelligent correction method, and gram angular field (GAF) and stacked autoencoder (SAE) are used for feature extraction and conditional variational autoencoder (CVA) is used to generate specific samples to ensure the adequacy of the clustering process. Secondly, considering the historical similarity of error of predicted power, the power is further corrected based on the proposed weighted double-constraint to realize the secondary calibration. The Proposed method is applied to several wind farms in China to verify its effectiveness. The results show that the proposed method reduces the N RMSE by 3.82 % and N MAE by 3.40 % compared with direct prediction in the wind farms in western Inner Mongolia, which is important for promoting wind power consumption and maintaining the safe and stable operation of the power system. • Propose a method to extract the most relevant trend component form wind speed. • Propose a novel method for wind speed correction and power calibration. • Propose a sample condition generation method based on GAF and CVA. • Propose an improved clustering distance into the wind speed correction process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• This paper analyzes whether the financial support for grassland ecological protection and restoration has improved the vegetation coverage of grassland. • There is a nonlinear relationship between financial support for ecological restoration and grassland vegetation coverage. • Different fiscal expenditure structure has a heterogeneous response. • The degree of fiscal decentralization has a significant positive regulatory effect on the ecological benefits. Grassland ecological restoration is an important cornerstone to maintain the sustainable development of grassland ecosystem. One of the goals of financial support for grassland ecological protection and restoration is whether the ecological benefits of grassland are fully realized, and grassland vegetation coverage is the main index to measure the ecological benefits. This paper aims to analyze whether the financial support for grassland ecological protection and restoration has improved the vegetation coverage of grassland. and then verify whether there is room for improvement in the fiscal effect of grassland ecological protection and restoration? Based on the panel data of 54 animal husbandry and semi-agricultural and semi-animal husbandry counties in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of China, this paper adopts a bidirectional fixed effect model and cross-fixed effect model to introduce natural factors affecting grassland vegetation coverage into the model and systematically examines the financial effects of ecological benefits of financial support for grassland ecological protection and restoration. The main findings are as follows: (1) there is a nonlinear relationship between financial support for grassland ecological protection and restoration and grassland vegetation coverage when natural factors are taken into account in the model. (2) different fiscal expenditure structure has a heterogeneous response to the impact of grassland ecological protection and restoration on ecological benefits. (3) the degree of fiscal decentralization and the relative performance of the government have a significant positive moderating effect on the ecological benefits of fiscal support for grassland ecological protection and restoration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The training time of Long Short-Term Memory is reduced by changing network structure. • A new hybrid model is proposed for wind speed forecasting. • Four experiments are designed to verify the performance and reliability of the model. Obtaining accurate wind speed forecast result plays a decisive role in ensuring the reliable operation of the power system integrated with large-scale wind power. Deep learning methods are increasingly being used to predict wind speed, which have relatively high prediction accuracy but more time-consuming training processes. The purposes of this study are further to improve the prediction accuracy of the wind speed and reduce the training time of the deep learning method. In this paper, a novel hybrid model, New Cell Update Long Short-Term Memory combined with Empirical Wavelet Transform, is proposed to increase the prediction accuracy in shorter training time. At first, the original wind speed sequence is preprocessed into a series of sub-sequence by the empirical wavelet decomposition. Then each sub-sequence is trained by New Cell Update Long Short-Term Memory which is proposed by this paper respectively and the sum of each sub-sequence is treated as the final prediction results. In order to verify the performance of the proposed model, different decomposition methods and different prediction methods are compared on the four actual wind speed prediction cases in the Inner Mongolia, China from prediction accuracy and training time. The results demonstrate that: (1) New Cell Update Long Short-Term Memory network has slightly higher prediction accuracy and shorter training time than Long Short-Term Memory network. (2) The prediction accuracy of the model is significantly improved after empirical wavelet decomposition. Therefore, New Cell Update Long Short-Term Memory network combined with empirical wavelet decomposition is a competitive wind speed prediction method compared to the existing state-of-the-art approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Grain size is commonly used as a proxy to reconstruct past lake hydrology; however, published research rarely links grain size with modern processes, and uncertainties exist for interpretation. In this paper, we decompose the grain size frequency distributions (GSFD) for 196 lake surface sediments from 61 lakes and 9 reservoirs across the Inner Mongolia Plateau and adjacent areas and divide them into five GSFD components. We statistically analyze the relationship between the GSFD components and influencing variables to determine the taphonomic dynamics and their environmental implications. Within individual lakes, we found that GSFD component 4 (74.00–209.30 μm) and GSFD component 5 (209.30–592.00 μm) dominate near the lake margin and reduce toward the lake center in proportions. By contrast, GSFD component 2 (2.75–15.56 μm) increases toward the lake center. Therefore, the proportions of GSFD component 2, 4, and 5 reflect the relative distance to the lakeshore and allow inferences about lake area changes. We apply this large modern dataset to a sediment core obtained from Lake Wulanhushao (WLHS) on the Inner Mongolia Plateau and link the lake surface sediment-based GSFD components to BEMMA end-members of grain size records to define their environmental implications over the last 18.59 cal. kyrs BP. We found that the Lake WLHS has responded to the orbital and suborbital climate changes since the last deglaciation. Specifically, maximum lake transgression prevailed during the early to middle Holocene (11.70–7.10 cal. kyr BP), medium lake transgression dominated during 17.05–15.80 cal. kyr BP, and weak transgression developed during 14.60–12.90 cal. kyr BP. Maximum lake regressions prevailed before 17.05 cal. kyr BP, during 15.80–14.60 cal. kyr BP and 12.90–11.70 cal. kyr BP. Our reconstructed early Holocene maximum lake area is consistent with regional abiotic proxy-based moisture records, but contrasts with the regional biotic proxy-based moisture records, which reconstruct increasing moisture conditions. Our new method to determine lake area changes will provide valuable data to understand the climate dynamics of northern China. • We numerically revealed the environmental implications of grain size components of lake surface sediment. • Linking lake surface sediment grain size component to core end members provide basis for interpretations. • Maximum lake transgression prevailed during the early Holocene in northern China. • Abiotic proxies-based early Holocene lake transgression is distinct with biotic proxies' reconstructions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Predict the evolution of land use and landscape ecological risk. • Couple landscape ecological risk and ecological security network. • Construct an ecological security network for multiple future development scenarios. • Explore sustainable development scenario for Northeast China. • Make recommendations for ecological security network optimization. The expansion of human activities has significantly increased ecological risks, which threaten the security of ecosystems. This paper takes Northeast China, a national typical ecological barrier region, as a case study to explore the evolution of the ecological environment under various future development scenarios. Considering the complexity of ecological assessments, a comprehensive approach integrating various methods is employed. This includes the Patch-based Land Use Simulation (PLUS) model, Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-offs (InVEST) model, a landscape ecological risk assessment index system, the Space Minimum Cumulative Resistance (MCR) model, among others. These methods are used to dynamically assess changes in land use, landscape ecological risk (LER), and the layout of ecological networks. An integrated framework is proposed for identifying, constructing, and optimizing the ecological security network (ESN). The results show that the LER in Northeast China presents a "high in the middle, low around" distribution characteristic. High risk areas are mainly distributed in water bodies and construction lands with high landscape fragmentation and isolation, while low risk areas are primarily in the Northeast forest belt and Inner Mongolia grassland areas with lower landscape vulnerability and separation. From 2000 to 2020, the LER in the Northeast China has increased, primarily manifested in the Greater and Lesser Khingan Range areas in the northern part of the study region. Forecast results indicate significant differences in the evolution of LERs and the layout of the ESN under different socio-economic development scenarios. Under the ecological protection (EP) scenario, the average LER in Northeast China is 0.2215. The area of ecological source lands is 302,405.56 km2, the length of ecological corridors is 179,024.71 km, with 339 ecological nodes and 410 ecological breakpoints identified. Compared with the natural development (ND) and urban construction (UC) scenarios, the EP scenario in Northeast China shows the lowest LER and the most ideal layout of the ESN. This study provides a reference for future land resource optimization and ecological restoration in Northeast China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Green ammonia production as an important application for propelling the upcoming hydrogen economy has not been paid much attention by China, the world's largest ammonia producer. As a result, related studies are limited. This paper explores potential supply chain design and planning strategies of green ammonia production in the next decade of China with a case study in Inner Mongolia. A hybrid optimization-based simulation approach is applied, considering traditional optimization approaches are insufficient to address uncertainties and dynamics in a long-term energy transition. Results show that the production cost of green ammonia will be at least twice that of the current level due to higher costs of hydrogen supply. Production accounts for the largest share of the total expense of green hydrogen (~80 %). The decline of electricity and electrolyser prices are key in driving down the overall costs. In addition, by-product oxygen is also considered in the model to assess its economic benefits. We found that by-product oxygen sales could partly reduce the total expense of green hydrogen (~12 % at a price of USD 85/t), but it also should be noted that the volatile price of oxygen may pose uncertainties and risks to the effectiveness of the offset. Since the case study may represent the favourable conditions in China due to the abundant renewable energy resources and large-scale ammonia industry in this region, we propose to take a moderate step towards green ammonia production, and policies should be focused on reducing the electricity price and capital investments in green hydrogen production. We assume the findings and implications are informative to planning future green ammonia production in China. • The H 2 -based energy transition in China's ammonia industry is explored. • A hybrid approach for green ammonia supply chain design and planning is proposed. • The cost of green ammonia will be at least twice that of the current level. • Electricity price and expenses in electrolysers are key impacts to the total cost. • Storing and selling by-product oxygen can partly reduce the total cost. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The northern edge of the East Asian monsoon region is also a transition zone of temperate continental and monsoon climate, which is a sensitive zone of global climate and ecological environment change. It is an urgent problem to find out the long-term climate change rules of this region. Using 101 tree core samples obtained from 54 trees, a 343-year tree-ring width chronology of the Platycladus orientalis (L.) Franco (1673–2016) in the Wula Mountains, Inner Mongolia, China was established. The analysis shows that the radial growth of P. orientalis is closely related to hydrothermal conditions, the average minimum temperature and relative humidity are the main factors that determine the growth of P. orientalis. Based on the strong correlation between the tree-ring indices and the annual average minimum temperature (r = −0.870, p < 0.001), we reconstructed an average annual minimum temperature series from 1673 to 2016 using a linear regression equation, and the reconstructed equation can explain 75.724% of the variance, respectively. According to the data from the past 343 years, the changes in the annual average minimum temperature series had the cycles of 58.6-, 7.7-, 3.4-, 3.1-, 2.2-, and 2.1-years; the series showed three warm periods (1824–1830, 1909–1922, and 1986–2011) and 4 cold periods (1703–1712, 1731–1738, 1754–1763, and 1937–1951). The low temperature periods recorded in the reconstructed series for the 17th and 18th centuries are consistent with the Little Ice Age that occurred in the northern hemisphere, and the heating rate significantly increased at the end of the 20th century. In addition, the cold and warm periods recorded by the reconstruction result is basically consistent with the extreme climate events recorded in the historical documents of the region and the reconstruction results in other regions. In this paper, the world's first chronology of P. orientalis tree ring width was established. A historical sequence of annual average minimum temperature of 343 years was reconstructed in a typical region of the East Asian monsoon climate. It fills in the blank of reconstruction sequence and variation characteristics of mean minimum temperature in the northern edge of East Asian monsoon and transition zone of temperate continental and monsoon climate in recent four centuries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The terrestrial Yanliao Biota in northeastern China represents a Jurassic biodiversity hotspot. Abundant and diverse fossils include the oldest known representatives of several groups of plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates that thrived in a forest ecosystem under a humid and warm climate. Since the early 21st century, discoveries associated with the Yanliao Biota have significantly improved our understanding of Jurassic terrestrial ecosystems. However, a robust chronostratigraphic framework is required to calibrate the biota with key evolutionary events and to improve understanding of possible links between evolution and tectonism. In this paper, we report novel 40Ar/39Ar ages for two tuff layers (161.4 ± 0.8 Ma and 161.6 ± 0.6 Ma) positioned directly above the less-studied but salamander fossil-rich beds in Reshuitang, near Lingyuan, Liaoning Province, China. These new age data improve knowledge of the timing of diversification of early salamanders. We also review all reported age data and summarize significant fossils from classic Yanliao outcrops. Our study indicates that the Reshuitang fossil beds were deposited slightly later than the well-known Daohugou fossil beds situated ∼15 km away in Inner Mongolia and somewhat earlier than the Linglongta fossil beds in western Liaoning Province. These findings advance understanding of the Jurassic world during an episode of pronounced climatic warming. • We provide detailed age calibration for the Jurassic Yanliao Biota. • Our study allows us to understand Jurassic terrestrial ecosystems. • A robust chrono-stratigraphy reconstructs the link between life and climate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Jehol Biota comprises significant fossils that help to elucidate the evolution of Early Cretaceous terrestrial ecosystems. In this paper, we provide three new zircon U Pb age constraints (124.3 ± 1.5 Ma, 124.9 ± 1.6 Ma, and 121.5 ± 1.4 Ma) from the base to the top of the Jiufengshan Formation (Xinganling Group) at the Naketa section in the north Great Xing'an Range of eastern Inner Mongolia, China, within a succession that contains the typical Eosestheria - Ephemeropsis trisetalis - Lycoptera davidi (EEL) assemblage of the Jehol Biota. Combined biostratigraphic and radio-isotopic dating suggests that the Jiufengshan Formation in the Naketa section corresponds to the upper part of the Yixian Formation and the lower part of the Jiufotang Formation, making it Barremian to earliest Aptian in age. Our findings allow us to test a widely accepted hypothesis about the migration and radiation of the Jehol Biota, and show that these organisms preserved within the lower part of the Jiufengshan Formation reached the Naketa area during the second and third evolutionary stages. The preservation of Jehol elements in the Naketa section provides valuable clues regarding the evolutionary history of the Jehol Biota and its spatiotemporal development. Furthermore, our study allows us to explore possible links between evolutionary processes and concurrent tectonism in the North China Craton, as the timing of this Jehol migration occurred when the tectonic setting changed from a compressional to an extensional regime. • We provide detailed fossil records and robust age for the far north Jehol outcrop. • This study refutes the widely accepted model for the Jehol migration. • Our results test the link between biological radiation and tectonic activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Integrating renewable electricity and green hydrogen with CO 2 utilization to produce chemicals has drawn much attention due to its low carbon emission characteristics. The goal of this paper is to investigate the environmental sustainability of producing a steady hourly output of methanol by utilizing electricity and hydrogen produced via renewable energy resources, and CO 2 captured from a coal-fired power plant located in Inner Mongolia, China. Six renewable energy-based electricity and hydrogen systems are considered based on photovoltaic, wind turbines and combinations thereof, including battery and grid technologies. The environmental impact indicators of these system are compared comprehensively through life cycle assessment approach, including not only global warming potential but also fossil fuel depletion, water & soil & air pollution indices and human health index. The results indicate that the most environmentally friendly system is Case B2 which uses photovoltaic to produce hydrogen and electricity, with battery for energy storage and excess electricity sold back to grid. It shows apparently the best sustainability performance in global warming potential, which is 0.105 kg CO 2 -eq per kg methanol. In general, the proposed six systems outperform conventional methanol production systems in terms of global warming potential and abiotic depletion potential, with reductions ranging from 74% to 92% and 51.1%–73.8% respectively, but they have high levels in other environmental sustainability indicators such as human toxicity, eutrophication potential, and ozone layer depletion potential due to the photovoltaic electricity generation unit. The findings highlight that it is essential to consider a comprehensive range of environmental sustainability indicators when developing renewable energy-based methanol systems on a large scale. [Display omitted] • Component capacity of the integrated system is optimized. • Comprehensive life cycle environmental impact assessment is conducted. • GWP of proposed route is 74 %–92% lower than fossil-based route. • PV manufacturing is critical in most environmental impact indicators. • HTP, ODP and EP indicators of proposed route are much high. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water rights trading volume (WRTV) is an integral part of an effective transaction. At present, in China, WRTV is mostly based on the water demand of the transferee, not the transferor. Some transactions last for a long time, yet lack proper measures to adjust trading volume, making theoretical and quantitative studies on WRTV necessary and essential. Therefore, based on the theory of property rights, this study first analyzed the concept of WRTV, and proposed that WRTV must consider the tradable water volume (TWV) of the transaction parties. For that, this paper divided water rights trading into two stages: initial stage and operation stage, to analyze how to measure WRTV in different stages. Second, currently, industry or sector is a major player of water rights trading. TWV of industry is, hence, the difference between the initial water rights volume (IWRV) and water demand of industry, significant for calculating WRTV in different stages. For that, this study employed the ratio method to calculate the IWRV of industry, and the Grey Model—GM (1,1) to predict the water demand of industry. Last, this paper carried out a case study on the inter-league and inter-city water rights trading between Bayannur city and Ordos city in Inner Mongolia, China. Results show that the TWV of industry of Bayannur and Ordos in 2030 are – 904.966 million m3 and − 87.135 million m3 respectively, implying insufficient TWV for the transferee, which may lead to transaction breakdown. The theory and calculation method of WRTV proposed in this study lay a theoretical foundation for WRTV measurement, and can help facilitate the orderly development of water rights trading in China. [Display omitted] • The volume of water rights should be considered the tradable water volume of the transaction subjects at the same time. • The impact of the change of the tradable water volume on the water rights transaction volume is analyzed. • The change of water rights trading volume has a great impact on trading, and even leads to the transaction rupture. • Forecasting the trading volume of water rights between Bayannur city and Ordos city in Inner Mongolia of China in 2030. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we introduce a Topp-Leone Lindley (TLL) distribution by using Topp-Leone (TL) family. Mathematical properties of the TLL distribution are studied. Estimation of the unknown parameters is derived by the methods of maximum likelihood, least squares and maximum product spacings. The performance of the estimation methods is evaluated by means of Monte-Carlo simulation. In the application part of the research, we have used a long term measured wind speed data from ten stations in Inner Mongolia of China. The suitability of the TLL distribution and other six distributions (inverse Gaussian, Birnbaum-Saunders, power Lindley, weighted Lindley, Weibull, inverse Weibull) used to fit for wind speed data is evaluated based on root mean square error, coefficient of determination, the log-likelihood, Akaike information criterion (AIC), Bayesian information criterion (BIC), Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K–S) statistic and power density error. The results substantiate that TLL distribution is widely applicable at all selected stations. TLL distribution outperforms the others at five stations, ranks the second at three stations and classifies as the third in remaining two stations. Alternatively, Weighted Lindley distribution is the next best distribution for analyzing wind speed data in selected stations. It is stronger than others at three stations while ranking the second at five stations and fourth in two stations. Although this finding questions the accuracy of Weibull distribution in modeling wind speed data, it provides superior estimation of wind power density for the ten stations. • The study solved a knowledge gap that existing wind speed distributions perform poorly in wind energy application. • A novel distribution, called the Topp-Leone Lindley (TLL), is proposed to fit the Inner Mongolia wind speed data. • The performance of the TLL distribution is compared with six commonly-used distributions for the considered wind data. • Wind characteristics are analyzed for wind energy potentials at ten sites in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the context of carbon neutrality, renewable energy, especially wind power, solar PV and hydropower, will become the most important power sources in the future low-carbon power system. Since wind power and solar PV are specifically intermittent and space-heterogeneity, an assessment of renewable energy potential considering the variability of wind power and solar PV with high temporal resolution in different regions will facilitate more accurate identification of the decarbonization pathway of power system. In this paper, the complementary output potential of wind-solar-hydro power every 15 min in 31 Chinese provinces is evaluated by developing a multi-objective optimization model based on Nondominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II. The results show that the total annual complementary power generation potential in China is 17.57 PWh, of which the three components account for 47.8%, 25.3% and 26.9%, respectively. Inner Mongolia and Tibet are the major renewable energy source provinces with annual complementary power generation potential of 5330 TWh and 3907 TWh, accounting for 30.3% and 13.7% of the total power generation potential, respectively. The temporal potential of wind-solar-hydro power varies greatly, with daily potential is more volatile than monthly. Seasonal and spatial heterogeneity of the complemental renewable potential makes some provinces suffer power shortage during long-hours period especially in winter. Our findings will encourage a higher penetration of renewable energy, the promotion of multi-energy complementarity, and the development of inter-provincial power transmission and energy storage infrastructure in China's future power sector. • A multi-objective wind-solar-hydro complementary optimization model is developed. • Electricity supply and demand have gaps at different temporal and spatial scales. • Wind-solar-hydro complementary potential shows great temporal and spatial variation. • Renewable complementarity can improve China's future power system stability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the modes of occurrence of elements in coal is important, not only to help properly evaluate the impacts of potentially toxic elements on the environment and human health but also to provide technical guidance for recovering critical elements from coal ash. Statistical and multivariate data analysis methods have widely been used, together with physical and chemical methods, to determine the modes of occurrence of elements in coal. However, some of the statistical methods, e.g., average linkage hierarchical clustering algorithm have some disadvantages (e.g., statistical errors and poor visualization). A self-organizing map is an unsupervised artificial neural network, and it is known for its high data mining capability and excellent data visualization. In contrast to the average linkage hierarchical clustering algorithm that is commonly used for analyzing the modes of occurrence of elements in coal, the self-organizing map algorithm can provide a topological relationship among elements instead of merely providing the groups to which the elements belong. This paper focuses on the application of self-organizing map to coal elemental data for analyzing the modes of occurrence of elements in coal. Samples used in this study are from the Adaohai, Hailiushu, and Datanhao mines, all located in the Daqingshan Coalfield, Inner Mongolia, China. The results obtained from the self-organizing map algorithm are compared with those produced by average linkage hierarchical clustering algorithm. Based on the previous investigations (mainly direct methods) and further analysis, it can be concluded that the results from the self-organizing map algorithm in this investigation are more consistent with the geochemical nature and previous investigations by direct methods than those from average linkage hierarchical clustering algorithm. Consequently, the self-organizing map algorithm is a new reliable and intuitive method for analyzing the modes of occurrence of elements in coal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Designing an integrated regional water environment modeling framework • Concurrent analysis of seasonal water and its driving forces across space and time • Differentiating how different blocks of driving factors interact with water scarcity • Driving factor impacts on water scarcity increase substantially over time • Local resource endowment and utilization critically impact spatial heterogeneity Increased grazing and agricultural production, industrialization, population growth, and consequent land use land cover (LULC) changes considerably increase water consumption. Global climate change exaggerates the uncertainty of water sources and supplies. Unfortunately, most current examinations are either confined within disciplinary silos or not integrated for considering wide-ranging socioenvironmental, management, and policy factors. The paper develops an integrated regional water environment modeling framework, examining how climate, LULC, socioenvironmental, and policy factors interact with the water environment. It also adopts a block-based econometric panel data analysis to quantify this framework. The paper extracts seasonal water area and LULC data through image processing from 2000 to 2014 in the Hulun-Buir watershed, Inner Mongolia of China. The paper quantitatively analyzed the interactions between seasonal water changes and major driving factors, such as climatic, land-use, socioeconomic, policy, space, and time. Many of these driving factors were interacting with the seasonal water environment and showing long-term causal relationships. The socioeconomic variables explained 71% of the variance of seasonal water change, the environmental and climatic factors about 9%, the regional disparities around 13%, and the yearly differences about 4%. The findings confirm that it is critical to carry out a time-series examination of causal relationships between seasonal water change and its manifold driving factors at the scale of regional watershed studies. This integrated watershed modeling framework is suitable for adaptation in other geographic areas or for integrated studies of other socio-environmental systems. Graphical Abstract [Display omitted]. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The aim of this paper is to study pathways to a low-carbon economy for Inner Mongolia whose economy highly depends on fossil energy. The paper analyzed the industrial and energy structure of the economy and further demonstrated the necessity of developing the low-carbon economy in Inner Mongolia, a typical province in the western China. In addition, the LMDI Decomposition Method is used to analyze the factors that affect the growth in carbon emission and the Grey Relational Analysis (GRA) is applied to examine the relation between the carbon emission and GDP growth. At last, the paper further studied the advantages of developing the low carbon economy in Inner Mongolia and suggested different modes and pathways for Inner Mongolia to achieve the low carbon economy. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Grassland Ecological Compensation Policy (GECP) is a large-scale program in which China has invested since 2011 to alleviate grassland degradation and increase herders' income. Although the amount invested in the program has increased each year, little research has been conducted to evaluate the impacts of the program; as such, this study examines such impacts on livestock production, grazing intensity, and structure using panel data from a herders' field survey conducted in 2015 in Inner Mongolia, China. Results from the econometric models show that the forage-livestock balance, which is one sub-policy of the GECP, had incentivized large farms to reduce their total number of sheep, but the implementation of the GECP could not greatly influence the reduction in the number of cattle present on any farm size. This study also reveals that herders made their livestock production and grazing decisions in response to market prices and that herder households that also had off-farm jobs raised fewer livestock and grazed lighter. Several policy implications are discussed in this paper. • We evaluate the impacts of grassland conservation subsidy on livestock. • Herders' survey and econometric models are used. • Subsidies were found to be more effective for larger farms. • Herders make livestock production decisions in response to livestock market prices. • Herder households with off-farm jobs raised fewer livestock and grazed lighter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract There are ten ephemeral tributaries of the Yellow River in the Inner Mongolia of China. As their catchments are covered by loose materials and are dominated by an intense interaction between wind and water erosion, these tributaries have had a high sediment yield and alluvial fans have been formed at the confluences of the tributaries with the Yellow River. However, there is a lack of understanding in the deposition model of the alluvial fans and the roles of fluvial and aeolian processes in sediment accumulation. In this paper, we used Ground Penetrating Radar (100 MHz) and sediment cores to investigate the sediments in channels and alluvial fans of four out of the ten tributaries. Radar reflection profiles of sedimentary strata are dominated by horizontal or sub-horizontal layers with a large scale, showing that the fluvial deposition on the alluvial fans has been dominated by a vertical accretion pattern. The reflection features like reflection free, inclined reflections, discontinuous, undulate, chaotic, sinuous reflections and channel fill exist to a lesser extent. A few GPR profiles send signs of intense erosion, and the one near the apex of an alluvial fan reveals that erosion had been active likely during the early Holocene and the channel position should be relatively fixed. The information extracted from this profile and the widely exposed late Pleistocene strata in the upper parts of the alluvial fans according to the geological map of the study area indicates that sediment accumulation has been slow in the upper alluvial fans since the early Holocene. The sediment cores indicate that sedimentary strata under the alluvial fans are mainly composed by sand and silt deposited in a fluvial environment and rarely reworked by wind actions. Also according to the core data, the sediment deposits in the west fans were coarser than those in the east fans, likely suggesting that the hydrodynamic force of the western tributaries was stronger than that of the east ones. The hydrodynamic environment of the tributaries was usually unstable historically and hyperconcentrated flows might occur with a higher frequency in one of the tributaries in history. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water, energy and food (WEF) are three basic elements that safeguard human life and socioeconomic development. As the demand for water increases in food and energy production, water scarcity is more prominent globally. WEF Nexus plays an important role in evaluating and alleviating the contradiction between food and energy for water. Based on the water footprint of food and energy in China from 1997 to 2016, this paper used the "Structure-Conduct-Performance" analysis paradigm to evaluate the water competition mechanism. The newly constructed competition mechanism model includes type, conduct and performance. The results showed that the blue water footprint of energy increased from 3.25 Gm³ in 1997 to 12.54 Gm³ in 2016. The blue water footprint of food remained above 200 Gm³ for many years, and competition between food and energy production for water was intensifying. The gray water footprint of energy was increasing yearly, and food reached the maximum value of 181.01 Gm³ in 2014. Through model analysis, the South-to-North Water Diversion has not effectively alleviated water scarcity, and a few provinces were still classified in the water pressure-dominated area. The northern channel of West-to-East Power Transmission only transferred electric energy from water pressure-dominated area, causing the unsustainability coefficients of Inner Mongolia and Yunnan to increase from 0.09 and 0.03 in 1997 to 0.23 and 0.05 in 2016. This paper provides effective policy insights for global challenges facing WEF Nexus from the source, process and end of food and energy production. [Display omitted] • The WEF Nexus internal competition mechanism is evaluated by constructing a model. • The model analysed dominant factor, driving mechanism and feedback effect of competition. • The increasing energy water footprint yearly makes water security more prominent. • This study finds that water scarcity has not been effectively alleviated in China. • Many measures provide policy insights into global challenges facing WEF Nexus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the gradual maturity of wind power technology, China's wind power generation has grown rapidly over the recent years. However, due to the on-site inconsumable electricity, the phenomenon of large-scale "wind curtailment" occurs in some areas. In this paper, a novel hybrid hydrogen/electricity refueling station is built near a wind farm, and a part of the surplus wind power is used to charge electric trucks, and the other part of the surplus power is used to produce "green hydrogen". According to real-time load changes, different amounts of liquid hydrogen and gas hydrogen can be properly coordinated to provide timely energy supply for hydrogen trucks. For a 400 MW wind farm in the western Inner Mongolia, China, the feasibility of the proposed system has been carried out based on the sensitivity and reliability analysis, the static and dynamic economic modeling, with an entire life cycle analysis. Compared to the conventional technology, the initial investment of the proposed scheme (700.07 M$) decreases by 13.97%, and the dynamic payback period (10.93 years) decreases by 25.87%. During the life cycle of the proposed system, the accumulative NPV reaches 184.63 M$, which increases by 3.14 times compared to the case by conventional wind technology. • A novel hybrid hydrogen/electricity refueling system to charge electric vehicles, and produce "green hydrogen". • A realistic multi-energy study based on a 400 MW wind farm in western Inner Mongolia, China. • Feasibility study with sensitivity and reliability analysis for the proposed system. • Static and dynamic economic modeling on a hybrid hydrogen/electricity refueling station. • The proposed system has technical and economic benefits, but much less carbon emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The vertical slip rate of a normal fault is one of the most important parameters for evaluating its level of activity. The Sertengshan piedmont fault has been studied since the 1980s, but its absolute vertical slip rate has not been determined. In this paper, we calculate the displacements of the fault by measuring the heights of piedmont terraces on the footwall and the stratigraphic depths of marker strata in the hanging wall. We then calculate the vertical slip rate of the fault based on the displacements and ages of the marker strata. We selected nine sites uniformly along the fault to study the vertical slip rates of the fault. The results show that the elevations of terraces T3 and T1 are approximately 1060 m and 1043 m, respectively. The geological boreholes in the basin adjacent to the nine study sites reveal that the elevation of the bottom of the Holocene series is between 1017 and 1035 m and that the elevation of the top of the lacustrine strata is between 925 and 1009 m. The data from the terraces and boreholes also show that the top of the lacustrine strata is approximately 65 ka old. The vertical slip rates are calculated at 0.74–1.81 mm/a since 65 ka and 0.86–2.28 mm/a since the Holocene. The slip rate is the highest along the Wujiahe segment and is lower to the west and east. Based on the findings of a previous study on the fault system along the northern margin of the Hetao graben basin, the vertical slip rates of the Daqingshan and Langshan faults are higher than those of the Sertengshan and Wulashan faults, and the strike-slip rates of these four northern Hetao graben basin faults are low. These results agree with the vertical slip components of the principal stress field on the faults. The results of our analysis indicate that the Langshankou, Wujiahe, and Wubulangkou areas and the eastern end of the Sertengshan fault are at high risk of experiencing earthquakes in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The large public building energy consumption (BEC) is the focus of Building Energy Saving, therefore, it is necessary to study the characteristics of BEC to find out the important factors affecting BEC. For this purpose, 27 office buildings in the west of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region were studied, based on statistical analysis of the researched basic information and energy consumption bill of these buildings. This paper focused on the determination of the significant factors affecting the total and subentry energy consumption intensity (ECI) of office building, as well as the establishment of standardized linear regression models between these selected factors and total and subentry ECI. Firstly, eleven continuous variables, three independent categorical variables, and the climate factor were selected and analyzed the impact on total and subentry ECI by statistical software SPSS20.0, in order to find out the significant influencing factors. Then based on the results of curve fitting, standardized models of total and subentry ECI and their respective significant impact factors were established using multiple linear regression analysis. The regression results showed that the electricity use percentage of the total equivalent electricity consumption was an important factor affecting the total ECI of office building in the west of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. Finally, univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted between the three independent categorical variables and the total and subentry ECI, and the results showed that these factors had no significant effect on the ECI of office building. Process of the regressive model establishment and the results of analysis of variance could both guide us to propose more targeted energy saving measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the Mesozoic, the Ginkgoales were especially diverse and widespread in the Northern Hemisphere. As a fossil genus, Baiera radiated and diversified rapidly during the Mesozoic and a large number of species have been recognized and identified around the world. In China, the most common fossil species is Baiera furcata but most described based on fragments of leaves without epidermal structures. In this paper, Baiera furcata is studied based on new material with well-preserved cuticle from the Lower Cretaceous Huolinhe Formation in Holingol, eastern Inner Mongolia, northeast China. The leaf macromorphology and cuticular structure of the new material are consistent with those of the type specimens from the Middle Jurassic of Yorkshire. Cuticular characters of the Holingol specimens are compared in detail with those of other Baiera furcata specimens from China and Europe. A large number of Chinese records under this specific name are re-examined. • Leaf anatomy of Baiera furcata from NE China was studied in detail using SEM. • The characteristics of the new materials are consistent with those of the type specimen. • Records of the most common fossil species Baiera furcata in China were reviewed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A GIS-based professional package for mineral resources assessment was developed. • SDE and Terrain Rendering were used to manage datasets and visualization. • A gold mineral resources assessment was conducted in Inner Mongolia by the GIS tool. This paper describes a software tool and its application to the China National Mineral Resource Assessment Initiative (CNMRAI). The initiative was carried out throughout China from 2007 to 2013, creating collaborations among geological societies from institutions such as academies, universities, companies, and local geological surveys. A geographic information system (GIS)-based tool was designed, providing functions for database management of the multiple original spatial datasets, modelling, targeting, estimation, and visualization to assist participants in assessing mineral resource potentials. During this initiative, geologists used the tool to generate mineral potential maps and assess undiscovered resources for the 25 major types of mineral resources in China. First, the requirements of the tool were introduced; second, the framework and major functions of the tool were delineated and developed; and third, a case study of gold resource assessment from a project of the CNMRAI in the Bayan Obo region, Inner Mongolia, China, was discussed. In addition, the mineral potential map was displayed by terrain rendering. This paper also provides interpretations of the results of a prospectivity analysis based on conceptual geological models. Discussions of the new requirements and techniques for modelling and assessing will be used to further develop the Mineral Resources Assessment Software (MRAS). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Payments for ecosystem services (PES) are a popular approach to change land use and reduce environmental damage, but their efficacy relies on determining appropriate payment levels. • This paper addresses gaps in the PES literature, specifically the need for approaches to estimate accurate payment levels without onerous data collection. • This paper presents a factor-income approach to calculating payments to livestock producers which can be calculated using basic accounting data. • The method is applied to a program which provides subsidies to sheep and goat herders in Ulanqab prefecture of Inner Mongolia, China. They are currently receiving subsidies as part of multi-billion-dollar program intended to reduce grazing and restore grassland health. Low levels of participation and insufficient grazing reductions have caused concerns about the program. • This paper estimates target subsidy payments which are shown to be greater than current subsidy payments for the majority of herders in Ulanqab. This suggests that future overgrazing might be mitigated through increased subsidy payment levels. This paper contributes to the growing literature on land use policies designed to prevent livestock overgrazing. It offers a straightforward factor-income approach to calculating payments for ecosystem services (PES) to livestock producers who reduce or suspend grazing for the purpose of grassland restoration. Our approach requires only cross-sectional farm-level accounting data and is thus feasible where policies have either not yet been applied or specialized data is sparse, as is common in many developing regions. We apply and validate this approach with empirical analysis of sheep and goat herders in the Ulanqab prefecture in Inner Mongolia, China where herders currently receive payments in exchange for reduced grazing intensity on vulnerable land. However, observed stocking rates are still commonly higher than recommended. Our results suggest payments are currently insufficient to offset the financial loss incurred by herders who reduce their grazing intensity, a finding consistent with previous studies. Using an approach we refer to as the factor-income method, we estimate and validate new levels of recommended payments. This demonstrates how future payments could be tailored to meet the financial needs of individual herding communities using basic farm-level data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• DPSIRM model was used to evaluate the ecological security of Xilingol grassland. • Remote sensing, meteorology, socio-economic and survey data are used in this paper. • We use grid GIS method to obtain more accurate evaluation results. • We analyzed the spatial-temporal evolution characteristics of ecological security. • Changes in the center of gravity in different security levels are also explored. The quantitative evaluation of the ecological security can reflect the changes in the quality of ecological environment and provide a scientific basis for the formulation of land-use policy and for the construction of the ecological environment. In this study, we selected Xilingol League in Inner Mongolia, China, as the research area, and established the driving force-pressure-state-impact-response-management (DPSIRM) model to evaluate grassland ecological security. The results were as follows: (1) During 2005–2015, the overall trend of ecological security level in the study area increased, with the western region being relatively ecologically insecure and the eastern region being more secure. (2) The spatial distribution trend of ecological security level from west to east was " very serious alerts " → " serious alerts " → " moderate alerts " → " light alerts "→ " no alert ". (3) The " very serious alerts " and " serious alerts " are mainly concentrated in Sonid Left Banner and Sonid Right Banner, but from the perspective of spatial migration of ecological security, unsafe and less safe tend to shift to the northeast. This study provides a new idea for grassland ecological security evaluation research, has important practical significance for understanding the ecological security level of Xilingol grassland area, and will guide the reasonable development and utilization of Xilingol grassland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Permafrost in Northeastern China has significantly degraded due to global warming, deforestation and urbanization in the last few decades. The frost heave and thaw subsidence induced by freeze-thaw cycles of deep seasonal frozen ground have caused serious damage to infrastructures. The Shiwei-Labudalin (Shi-La) Highway is an important infrastructure connecting Shiwei town and Labudalin town of Argun city, Inner Mongolia, which passes through the areas covered by deep seasonal frozen ground or isolated patchy permafrost. In this paper, we mapped the long-term linear displacement trend and amplitude of seasonal displacement of the Shi-La Highway and its nearby areas, with an ascending Sentinel-1 dataset acquired from September 2016 to April 2020. Seasonal displacement amplitudes of 5–20 mm are widely detected in low-lying areas (e.g., the basin of the Gen and Derbugan rivers). The time lags between frozen ground displacement and temperature variations generally range from 10 to 80 days while larger values of 100–120 days caused by soil moisture or land cover difference are also observed. Linear creep displacement rates greater than −20 mm/yr are detected on mountainous slopes and sections of the Shi-La Highway in the line-of-sight (LOS) direction. Our results provide a method for evaluating highway stability in cold regions, which is helpful to highway route selection and design in Northeastern China. • Map displacement of frozen ground in northern Inner Mongolia using InSAR. • Freeze-thaw related and creep movement were identified on Shi-La highway. • Time lags between displacement and temperature are 10–120 days in flat areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper investigates how climate changes and socioeconomic transformations affected grassland productivity from 2000 to 2017 in counties in Inner Mongolia of China. The grassland productivity and climatic change variables included 162 readings (9 periods in the growing season × 18 years), while ten socioeconomic variables contained 18 yearly readings. The mismatch between the environmental observations and socioeconomic data compounds quantitative analysis of causal relations between them. We applied several time-series processing methods to generate five datasets. We fit them with conventional, dependent-lagged, and dynamic-lagged panel regression models to investigate which combinations augment causal relationships between grassland productivity, climate, and socioeconomic changes. The results confirmed that the conventional model with the original data failed to reveal causal relationships between these factors. The panel regression models with the original data tended to intensify the causal effects of climate factors on grassland productivity. The models with the transformed datasets disclosed more socioeconomic variables showing causal relationships with grassland productivity. The dependent-lagged model with the empirical mode decomposition transformed data produced the highest R-squared value and lowest prediction error. GDP, state fixed asset investment, highway construction, grain plantation, and livestock density were primary factors affecting grassland productivity. In brief, the integration of time-series data mining and time-lagged panel analysis effectively unveiled the causes of grassland deterioration under climate and socioeconomic changes. [Display omitted] • Augment causality hidden in env-socio-economic systems with data assimilation. • Assimilate temporal environmental and socioeconomic data into compatible time-series. • Experiment with four groups of computational data mining methods on data assimilation. • Compare combinations of data assimilation methods and lagged panel regression models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Based on cascade framework, the ECC index system is built. • ECC is evaluated at different scales in Xilingol League. • To find the driving factors of ECC at different scales in Xilingol League. • Explore sustainable development path of coal power exploitation regions. Coal is a vital resource in China. With limited coal and the deteriorating eco-environment, it is consensus to take the sustainable development road in coal power exploitation regions. Taking Xilingol League, Inner Mongolia as an example, based on the cascade framework constituted by the "Driver - Pressure - State - Impact - Response" (DPSIR) model, this paper aimed to analyze the ecological carrying capacity at the league (city) scale and at the banner (county) scale contrastively. It found that the overall change trend was a wide "V" type at the league (city) scale. Moreover, the ecological carrying capacity at the banner (county) scale showed that the north was superior to the central and south in 2005, 2011 and 2018. The principal component analysis (PCA) approach had been adopted to analyze the driving factors. Driving factors were economic development and coal and electricity development at the league (city) scale, as well as resource supply and urbanization development at the banner (county) scale. At the league (city) scale, the economic benefits of industrial development had improved people's living standards, and part of the funds could be used in the investment in ecological restoration, thus improving the ecological carrying capacity; at the banner (county) scale, most counties were still coal-dependent areas, and the number of resources had a more significant impact on the ecological carrying capacity. This study provided ideas for sustainable development in energy exploitation regions at different scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a renewable energy, wind power has been improving energy structures and assisting in the maintenance of strategic energy security. Based on provincial level panel data from 2000 to 2018, this paper developed models to evaluate the effects of different policies on newly installed wind power capacity and investigated the market reform influences on wind development in eight spot market pilots. It was found that on a national level, while the pricing and government guideline policies significantly promoted wind power growth, present market reforms were having an opposite effect. The results also suggested that from a resource endowment heterogeneity perspective, there was a significant difference in the wind capacity promotion policy performances. Additionally, of the eight spot market pilots, market designs had led to a significant reduction in new wind power installations in Gansu and Inner Mongolia, and no significant wind power development effects were found in the other pilots. Based on the research results, a discussion on policy use and suggestions on policy improvements are given. • Effectiveness of different representative wind power policies are examined. • The panel models are developed using data that covers 30 provinces over 2000–2018. • Policy effectiveness varies by policy types and wind resource levels. • The current market designs show little impact on wind power development. • Implications on policy use and improvement suggestions are given. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A hydrological modeling approach was proposed to distinguish the relative contribution of climate changes and human activities on Daihai Lake's recession. • In the absence of natural runoff and human-induced water withdrawal observations, the natural state's lake water storage changes were reconstructed. • Without considering the high water years, the anthropogenic factor took the responsibility for the lake shrinkage about 58%, while the climatic factor took roughly about 42% in period 1974–2018. • This investigation serves as a useful example of applying a distributed model to the assessment of lake hydrology, especially for the lake catchments with limited observations. In recent decades, water levels in many closed inland lakes over north-western China experienced severe declines, among which the Daihai Lake in Inner Mongolia, China was particularly significant. Remotely sensed investigations indicated that the Daihai Lake had shrunk approximately 64% in an area with the dramatic decline of water level approximately 9 m from the 1980 s to 2010 s, which has caused serious concern on the sustainable development of the surrounding region. Consequently, several previous studies have concentrated on the possible causes of lake shrinkage. However, predicting climate variability and anthropogenic activities' relative contributions to lake water decline is challenging due to the lack of direct water consumption upstream and watershed-scale natural runoff observations. In this paper, a hydrological modeling approach was presented to quantitatively evaluate and separate the relative contributions of climate variations and intensifying anthropogenic activities. The simulation accuracy was evaluated through comparisons with observed data and cross-validation with previous studies. Based on a baseline period, the natural streamflow draining into the lake was reconstructed using the model. The results revealed that the water loss of the Daihai Lake was caused predominately by human activities rather than climate variability. Specifically, for wet conditions, the climate factors posed a negative effect on the water level decline of the lake and delayed the shrinking process of the lake area. The anthropogenic factors took a dominant role (roughly 58%) of lake shrinkage at the annual average scale for normal and dry conditions, while the climate factors accounted for approximately 42%. Hence, the rational policy for water resource management, ecological restoration, and dam and reservoir constructions/operations should be the essential precautions for sustainable development of the Daihai Lake and its surroundings. Additionally, the hydrological modeling approach adopted in this investigation serves as a useful example of the quantitative assessment of climate variations and human activities, especially for the ungauged catchments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The involvement of land users, such as farmers and herders, is crucial in protecting ecosystems, and the Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) is often regarded as a suitable measure to achieve this. Simultaneously, PES programs have sometimes failed to deliver on their stated aims. This article moots that livelihood capitals and policy credibility are important to consider in the implementation of PES programs. Livelihood capitals affect land users' perceptions towards ecological protection, which in turn, affect policy credibility. To assess the relation between policy credibility and livelihood capitals, we developed a theoretical framework predicated upon the credibility thesis and the sustainable livelihoods approach. We constructed quantitative models for the measurement of credibility, and for the assessment of the relation between credibility and livelihood capitals. The models were applied to a Payment for Grassland Ecosystem Services (PGES) scheme implemented in Inner Mongolia, China. We thus were able to pinpoint the mechanisms that explain how policy credibility affects herders' livelihood capitals and livelihoods. This study contributes to the research on PGES and pastoralism by: 1) delineating a new approach for studying the endogenous mechanisms of credibility in relation to livelihood capitals; 2) providing a theoretical and methodological basis that enables differentiating ecological conservation policies for various target groups (i.e. full-time, part-time, and non-agricultural herders); 3) presenting a selection of operational measures that may be used following the implementation of the Credibility Scales and Intervention (CSI) policy tool. • Paper posits credibility and livelihood capitals are vital for PES programs. • Develops theoretical framework based on credibility thesis and SLA approach. • Puts forward method to measure credibility in relation to livelihood capitals. • Applied to Payment for Grassland Ecosystem Services in Inner Mongolia, China. • New methodological basis to differentiate PES policies for varying target groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Field-portable exploration methods were systematically described in shallow overburden areas for vein-type fluorite deposits. • The advantages and disadvantages of field-portable fluorite exploration methods have been analyzed. • The Effectiveness of RS + VLF-EM + PRXF for exploration has been validated by trenching and drilling. Fluorite deposits are widespread throughout eastern China and commonly occur in vein systems. These vein-type fluorite deposits are the primary source of fluorine worldwide and were predominantly formed during the Mesozoic or Cenozoic periods. In the absence of ore outcrops, fluorite exploration is necessarily concentrated within the shallow overburden area. The Wuliji'Oboo fluorite deposit is an example of a medium–low temperature vein-type subsurface orebody in eastern Inner Mongolia. Five portable technology methods have been implemented within the study area, including multispectral remote sensing (RS) technology, very low-frequency electromagnetic measurement (VLF-EM), portable X-ray fluorescence analyses (PXRF), portable gamma-ray spectroscopy, and partial extraction geochemistry. This paper describes the application principles, influencing factors, and technical solutions for each method. By investigating various examples, the applications of portable technology methods and their associated limitations were evaluated. Combining geological research with multi-spectral RS techniques is essential for optimum fluorite ore body prediction, thus narrowing prospecting targets. First, the target area was scanned using VLF-EM to identify the distribution of potential anomalies. Second, PXRF was used to distinguish the mineralised anomaly. Finally, trenching and drilling were performed to verify the effectiveness of the combination of methods. This study establishes a geology-geophysics-geochemistry-remote sensing integrated exploration model that may provide theoretical and technical support for the prediction of fluorite ore bodies in large Quaternary shallow overburden areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New fossil-bearing horizons at the Gezidong and Jiaxikou localities, eastern Inner Mongolia, referred to as the Moqi fossil bed, yield a diverse fossil assemblage coined herein as "Moqi Fauna". The Moqi Fauna provides important insights into the evolution of some vertebrate clades, such as frogs and salamanders, and their Early Cretaceous diversification. In this paper, we report an improved chronology of the Moqi fossil bed based on SIMS and high-precision CA-ID-IRMS U-Pb zircon analyses of three tuff samples from horizons that are interstratified with the fossil-bearing layer at two localities. The SIMS U-Pb dating method applied on zircons from three samples gave dates of 117.8 ± 0.9/1.5 Ma, 117.7 ± 1.0/1.5 Ma, and 118.3 ± 1.2/1.7 Ma, respectively. Two high-precision CA-ID-IRMS U-Pb weighted mean 206Pb/238U ages of, 119.20 ± 0.38/0.38/0.72 Ma and 118.67 ± 0.13/0.14/0.28 Ma were also obtained. These findings indicate the age of the Moqi Fauna is ca. 119.20 Ma to 118.67 Ma. Comparison of the Moqi Fauna with the well-known Jehol Biota, as well as the Fuxin Biota of a slightly younger age, suggests that the Moqi Fauna was a distinct fauna which shows a potential link with the Jehol Biota. • We report the exceptional "Moqi Fauna" in eastern Inner Mongolia, China. • The "Moqi Fauna" is characterized by new and diverse fossil assemblages. • Mesozoic frog and salamander preserved together. • The Moqi fossil-bearing bed is precisely dated to 119.20–118.67 Ma. • Our study allows to better understand the vertebrate evolution and Early Cretaceous terrestrial ecosystem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Dictionary learning is used to model gold prospectivity for gold exploration targeting. • The case study shows that the dictionary learning model is no inferior to the logistic regression model and superior to the one-class SVM model. Machine learning and deep learning anomaly detectors have been successfully used to map mineral prospectivity. However, the establishment of machine learning or deep learning anomaly detection models for mineral prospectivity mapping often requires the determination of a set of initialization parameters in the absence of ground truth data. Improper initialization parameters will degrade the performance of these mineral prospectivity mapping models. Different from most machine learning and deep learning algorithms, dictionary learning is a "white-box" algorithm involving only linear transformations, and building a dictionary learning model requires only an empirical definition of the total number of atoms. Therefore, in this paper, two dictionary learning anomaly detectors were established for mineral prospectivity modeling based on the least angle regression-Lasso (LARS-Lasso) algorithm and the iterative shrinkage-thresholding algorithm (ISTA). The following five-step procedure was proposed for mineral prospectivity modeling using the dictionary learning techniques: (a) an overcomplete dictionary is constructed based on the input data; (b) each data point is transformed into sparse coefficients according to the overcomplete dictionary; (c) the sparse representation of each data point is calculated based on the overcomplete dictionary and the sparse coefficients; and (d) the Euclidean norm of the difference between each data point and its sparse representation is calculated and used as the mineral potential of the data point. The dictionary learning models were established to model gold prospectivity in the Jinchanggouliang district, Inner Mongolia, China, and compared with the logistic regression model and one-class support vector machine model in gold exploration targeting. The result shows that (a) the performances of the dictionary learning models are no less than that of the logistic regression (LGR) model and better than that of the one-class support vector machine (OCSVM) model, and (b) the gold prospective areas differentiated by the established models are strongly consistent with geological and metallogenic characteristics in the study area. Therefore, the dictionary learning algorithms are high-performance mineral prospectivity modeling techniques. It is worth to further test the effectiveness of the dictionary learning algorithms for different types of mineral deposits in different areas in mineral exploration targeting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The Yimin Ge-coal deposit, located in the Yimin coalfield, Inner Mongolia, is the third largest Ge-rich coal deposit in China just after the Lincang and Wulantuga Ge-coal deposits. Based on the coal and non-coal samples recently collected from the Wumuchang coal mining district in the Yimin Ge-coal deposit, this paper reports some new data on the mineralogical and geochemical characteristics of the Yimin high-Ge coals, and provides some new evidence for the possible mode of Ge enrichment in the Yimin coals. Mineralogical analyses were performed by means of Powder X-ray diffraction (XRD). Major and trace element concentrations were determined by inductively coupled plasma atomic-emission spectrometry (ICP-AES) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), respectively. Element affinities were determined by Pearson's correlation analysis. The studied coals fall within the coal rank between sub-bituminous A and high volatile bituminous C, with relatively high moisture content, high volatile matter yield and low to medium ash yield. Quartz and kaolinite are the main mineral matters in the Yimin coals, with small amounts of pyrite and traces of microcline. Common pyrite and As-bearing pyrite occurring in the Yimin coals show an epigenetic origin. The epigenetic precipitation of kaolinite, quartz and As-rich pyrite (with Ge, and other trace elements) in the Yimin coal fractures may be caused by activities of both hydrothermal and low temperature fluids. Compared to common Chinese and worldwide coals, the Yimin coals are markedly enriched in Ge (43mg/kg), As (155mg/kg), and W (9.84mg/kg) and slightly enriched in Pb (22mg/kg) and Hg (0.24mg/kg). Most of the elements (e.g. Al, K, Sc, Ti, V, Cu, Ga, Sn, Th and REEs) in the studied coals present an aluminosilicate affinity as deduced from their obvious positive correlation with Al and ash yields. High correlation coefficients of As and Hg with Fe and S indicate a sulfide affinity of these elements in the Yimin coals. Germanium, B, Mo, and W in the studied coals show an organic affinity and a partial sulfur affinity as deduced from their negative correlation with Al and positive correlation with S, respectively. The preliminary and possible model for Ge enrichment in the Yimin Ge-coal deposit was that Ge was carried by hydrothermal fluids and then these fluids were incorporated in the water existing in the upper porous conglomerates and percolate in the top of the coal seam, where Ge was trapped by organic matter and finally enriched in an early diagenetic stage (humification–gelification). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Remote sensing techniques offer effective means for mapping plant communities. However, mapping grassland with fine vegetative classes over large areas has been challenging for either the coarse resolutions of remotely sensed images or the high costs of acquiring images with high-resolutions. An improved hybrid-fuzzy-classifier (HFC) derived from a semi-ellipsoid-model (SEM) is developed in this paper to achieve higher accuracy for classifying grasslands with Landsat images. The Xilin River Basin, Inner Mongolia, China, is chosen as the study area, because an acceptable volume of ground truthing data was previously collected by multiple research communities. The accuracy assessment is based on the comparison of the classification outcomes from four types of image sets: (1) Landsat ETM+ August 14, 2004, (2) Landsat TM August 12, 2009, (3) the fused images of ETM+ with CBERS, and (4) TM with CBERS, respectively, and by three classifiers, the proposed HFC-SEM, the tetragonal pyramid model (TPM) based HFC, and the support vector machine method. In all twelve classification experiments, the HFC-SEM classifier had the best overall accuracy statistics. This finding indicates that the medium resolution Landsat images can be used to map grassland vegetation with good vegetative detail when the proper classifier is applied. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: To address severe grassland degradation problems, China has been implementing a number of national restoration programs, whose significant environmental effect has attracted the attention of many researchers. In this paper, land use and cover change (LUCC) in the Inner Mongolia grassland and the consequent change in net primary productivity (NPP) were studied by combining the land use data of the study area for 2001 and 2009 derived from the MODIS global land cover product and the CASA (Carnegie–Ames–Stanford Approach) model driven with MODIS-NDVI data. The results indicate that the area of Inner Mongolia grassland had a net increase of 77,993km2 during the study period, which was mainly attributed to the conversion from desert and cropland. The total NPP of Inner Mongolia grassland increased by 29,432.71GgCyr−1 during 2001–2009, of which the human activities and climate change were responsible for 80.23% and 19.77%, respectively. Land conversion and improved management increased grassland NPP directly, and the ecological restoration conducted by large-scale conservation programs could be the intrinsic driving force for this change. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Studies of the East Asian Neolithic have been conducted for more than a century and many attempts have been made to interpret the functions of prehistoric pottery, particularly the earliest ceramics. The unsophisticated pottery discovered in the Weijiawopu site opens a window for the study of early ceramic function. We conducted plant residue analyses of ceramics from the Weijiawopu Neolithic site; the largest Hongshan Culture settlement in Inner Mongolia, China. The site is thought to belong to the early to middle period of the Hongshan Culture, approximately 6500-5500 cal BP. Based on evidence from starch grains, we identified four main plant resources: 1) cereal grains; 2) Dioscorea plant tubers; 3) beans; and 4) nuts. None of the individual starch grains exhibit surface damage, indicating they did not undergo extensive processing such as grinding or cooking. Hence, we conclude that the pottery samples analyzed derive from food storage containers, indicating one major function of early pottery at the site. Furthermore, wild plants are thought to have been an essential part of the Weijiawopu people's subsistence base, suggesting a mixed economic pattern based upon both domestication activities and hunting-gathering-foraging lifeways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Renewable energy is one of the possible solutions when addressing climate change. Today, large-scale renewable energy integration needs to include the experience to balance the discrepancy between electricity demand and supply. The electrification of transportation may have the potential to deal with this imbalance and to reduce its high dependence on oil production. For this reason, it is interesting to analyse the extent to which transport electrification can further the renewable energy integration. This paper quantifies this issue in Inner Mongolia, where the share of wind power in the electricity supply was 6.5% in 2009 and which has the plan to develop large-scale wind power. The results show that electric vehicles (EVs) have the ability to balance the electricity demand and supply and to further the wind power integration. In the best case, the energy system with EV can increase wind power integration by 8%. The application of EVs benefits from saving both energy system cost and fuel cost. However, the negative consequences of decreasing energy system efficiency and increasing the CO2 emission should be noted when applying the hydrogen fuel cell vehicle (HFCV). The results also indicate that developing renewable energy is crucial for transportation electrification. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper presents a spatially and temporally improved reconstruction of mean summer (June–August) temperature derived from tree-ring width data of Dahurian larch (Larix gmelinii Rupr.) from the northern Great Xing''an Mountains, Northeast China. Three new chronologies were added to the original 2011 reconstruction, and the reconstruction extended back to AD 1715. The reconstruction was generated using a simple linear regression method, verified by independent meteorological data, and accounts for 47.0% of the actual temperature variance during the common period (1957–2008). The reconstruction captures decadal and century-scale regional temperature variability, such as cold decades (1940s, 1930s, 1790s, 1950s and 1850s), warm decades (2000s, 1870s, 1750s, 1980s and 1840s), a cold half-century (ca. 1750–1799), and a warm half-century (ca. 1900–1949). It also reveals slightly higher frequency of cold years (20.4%) than warm years (18.0%), and a recent warming trend. Compared to the original 2011 reconstruction, this reconstruction has lower inter-annual temperature variability, high explained variance and high representativeness of regional climate. The reconstruction also correlates with the East Asian Monsoon and the Pacific Ocean signals, and indicates the feasibility of using tree rings from high latitude Northeast China to reconstruct summer temperature in permafrost forest environments. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The amount of senesced biomass in vegetation plays an important role in estimation of carbon storage and plant stress. In this paper, the spectral predictors for estimating senesced biomass were evaluated based on field spectral and corresponding biophysical parameter measurements during the growing seasons of 2009 and 2010 in the desert steppe of Inner Mongolia. Results showed the cellulose absorption index (CAI) was the best one among senesced vegetation coverage indices and band depth indices. The model involving CAI yielded the highest coefficient of determination (R 2 =0.67) and the lowest root mean square error of leave-one-out cross validation (RMSECV=17.9gm−2) compared with normalized difference index (NDI) (R 2 =0.21, RMSECV=27.6gm−2), soil-adjusted corn residue index (SACRI) (R 2 =0.29, RMSECV=26.2gm−2), modified soil-adjusted crop residue index (MSACRI) (R 2 =0.1, RMSECV=29.5gm−2), dead fuel index (DFI) (R 2 =0.28, RMSECV=26.3gm−2), lignocellulose absorption depth (LCD) (R 2 =0.56, RMSECV=20.5gm−2) and lignocellulose absorption area (LCA) (R 2 =0.54, RMSECV=21.1gm−2). The results of this study suggest that CAI has good potential to estimate senesced biomass in desert steppe areas. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The resources of lignite in Dongsheng, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China are abundant. Because of its low energy density and typically high moisture content, lignite is not utilized extensively compared to higher coal grades. This paper focused on pyrolysis characteristic of lignite and the properties of its pyrolysates. The result demonstrated that comprehensive utilization of Dongsheng lignite can be achieved with in-depth knowledge of property of Dongsheng lignite. The pyrolysis experiments on lignite were carried out using a thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA) at four different heating rates of 10, 15, 20 and 25°C/min and with a final temperature of 600°C. The kinetics model has been developed and the kinetic parameters are determined from TGA data. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Aluminum-hydroxide (boehmite)-rich Pennsylvanian coals of high volatile A bituminous rank were found previously in the Jungar Coalfield, Inner Mongolia, China. This paper reports new results on 48 bench samples of the CP2 coal from the adjacent Adaohai Mine, Daqingshan Coalfield, Inner Mongolia, and provides new insights into the origin and modes of occurrence of the minerals and elements present in the CP2 coal. Compared to the same coal in the adjacent mines, the CP2 coal in the Adaohai Mine has a higher rank (Ro, ran =1.58%), which is attributed to igneous intrusions during the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous Epochs. The proportion of inertinite (35.3%) in the coal is higher than that in other Late Paleozoic coals in northern China but lower than that in the Jungar coals. Minerals in the CP2 coal include diaspore, boehmite, gorceixite, calcite, dolomite, siderite, clay minerals (kaolinite and ammonian illite), and trace amounts of anatase, fluorapatite, quartz, and pyrite. Based on mineral proportions in the coal bench samples, the CP2 coal may be divided into four Zones (I to IV) from bottom to top. The major mineral in Zones I and IV is kaolinite. Zones II and III are mainly composed of ammonian illite, diaspore, boehmite, gorceixite, calcite, dolomite, and siderite. Diaspore-, boehmite-, and gorceixite-forming materials were derived from oxidized bauxite in the weathered crust of the Benxi Formation in the sediment-source region during peat accumulation. However, gorceixite may have formed earlier than diaspore; the diaspore was derived from gibbsite that was subjected to dehydration by the heat of the igneous intrusions. The ammonian illite may have been formed at a relatively high temperature by interaction of kaolinite with nitrogen released from the organic matter in the coal during metamorphism caused by the igneous intrusion. The calcite and dolomite occur as epigenetic cell- and fracture-fillings and were probably derived from the igneous fluids. Compared to the common Chinese and world coals, the CP2 coal is enriched in CaO (1.69%), MgO (0.32%), P2O5 (0.214%), F (207μg/g), Ga (16.3μg/g), Zr (446μg/g), Ba (276μg/g), Hg (0.33μg/g), and Th (12.4μg/g), but has a lower SiO2/Al2O3 ratio due to the higher proportions of diaspore, boehmite, and gorceixite in the coal. The F occurs mainly in gorceixite and fluorapatite. The major carriers of Ga are diaspore and kaolinite but not gorceixite. Barium mainly occurs in gorceixite and barite. Mercury was probably derived from the igneous intrusion and is distributed in both the organic matter and the minerals. The elements are classified into five associations by cluster analysis, Groups A, B, C, D, and E. Group A represents a REE-Be-Y-Se-Ga-Ge-Sc-In-Pb-Bi-Nb-Ta-TiO2-W-Hg-Sb-Zr-Hf-Th-U association. Most of the elements in Group A are lithophile elements that occur in aluminosilicate minerals. Group B (Sn-Te-Zn-Cd-V-As-Cr-Cu-Mo-Ni-Re) is weakly correlated with ash yield and is associated with unidentified trace sulfide minerals. Elements in Group C (Ad-Na2O-Al2O3-SiO2- Li-K2O-Rb-Cs-Tl association) probably occur in the clay minerals and diaspore. Group D consists of P2O5, Ba, F, Sr, S, and Cl, and with the exception of S, they occur in minerals (gorceixite and fluorapatite). Oxides of Fe2O3-MnO-CaO-MgO make up Group E and mainly occur in the carbonate minerals. The coals are enriched in light REEs and the LREEs–HREEs have been highly fractionated, with an average (La/Yb) N of 8.71. The heavy REEs in the coals have a stronger organic affinity than the LREEs. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Inner Mongolia Hetao Irrigation District, in north of China, is typical of seasonal frozen soil areas in the region. Irrigation in autumn is required to leach soil salt and to provide a reserve of soil water for the next year''s crop. However, improper autumn irrigation results in the secondary salinization of soil. The objective of this study is to simulate soil water and heat dynamics during winter period with the one-dimensional Simultaneous Heat and Water (SHAW) model to assess its capability for simulating overwinter water storage. SHAW model soil parameters were calibrated by data of 1995–1996 and 2002–2004 and validated by data of 1996–2001 and 2005–2006 using field measured soil water contents and temperatures during freezing and thawing periods. Using calibrated and validated soil parameters, the paper simulates the process of soil freezing–thawing, and the dynamic variation of moisture–heat transfer, including soil water content, temperature, frost depth, soil evaporation, and water flux in the seasonal freezing–thawing period. These are useful to determine proper autumn irrigation management, and can be used in future research to address overwinter solute migration to reduce soil secondary salinization. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Inner Mongolia is an important ecological barrier in northern China. The vegetation coverage and changes in the region will directly affect many important economic regions in China. In this paper, based on the long time series NOAA/AVHRR NDVI dataset and vegetation-climate regions map in Inner Mongolia, we utilized the Mann - Kendall non-parametric test to analyze vegetation change treads in different vegetation-climatic regions from 1982 to 2006. The results showed that different vegetation-climate regions had different vegetation change treads. Therein, Central and Western parts of Inner Mongolia had an ascending trend, while, the eastern part had a descending trend. Inner Mongolia span different climatic regions, and plants lived there had various adaptive capacities under different environments. Therefore, its change trends also were quite different. All these illustrate that, under the background of climate change, the sensibility of vegetation are significant different and some plants in different regions have showed their adaptive capacities. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The Early Cretaceous Wulantuga high-Ge coal deposit in Inner Mongolia is one of the major coal-hosted Ge deposits in China. This paper reports new data on the petrological, mineralogical, and geochemical compositions of 13 bench samples of the high-Ge No. 6 coal from the Wulantuga deposit, and provides new insight into the origin and modes of occurrence of the minerals and elements present. The No. 6 Coal has a low rank (Ro,max =0.45%) and is a low-ash coal (8.77%). The total content of inertinite (52.5vol.% on average) in most coal benches is higher than that of huminite (46.8vol.% on average). The dominant huminite maceral is textinite (averages 43.9%), and the dominant inertinite macerals are mainly fusinite (averages 33%) and semifusinite (12.5%), along with trace portions of intertodetrinite, secretinite, funginite, and macrinite. Fungus, seen as the maceral funginite, played a role in the development of degraded maceral forms in the Wulantuga coals. Funginite is present in samples examined in this study, but is not easily extracted during palynological studies; recovered fungal taxa are saprophytes, indicating woody decomposition prior to incorporation in the mire. Palynology revealed a sparse flora that is consistent with the early Cretaceous age. Minerals in the coal include quartz, kaolinite, illite (and/or illite/smectite), gypsum, pyrite, and traces of rutile and anatase. A varying proportion of bassanite was observed in the low-temperature ashes (LTAs). Bassanite in the LTAs was derived both from the dehydration of gypsum in the raw coals and from the interaction between organically-associated Ca and S during the low-temperature ashing. In addition to a proportion of detrital quartz, fine-grained and cell-filling quartz of authigenic origin is also present. Pyrite is of syngenetic origin and derived from sulfate-rich hydrothermal fluids. Compared to common Chinese and world low-rank coals, the No. 6 Coal is enriched in Be (25.7μg/g), F (336μg/g), Ge (274μg/g), As (499μg/g), Sb (240μg/g), Cs (5.29μg/g), W (115μg/g), Hg (3.165μg/g), and Tl (3.15μg/g). Germanium in the coal is organically associated, and its enrichment is attributed to hydrothermal fluids from the adjacent granitoids. Beryllium is probably associated with Ca- and Mn-bearing carbonate minerals and to a lesser extent with clay minerals, rather than with organic matter. Fluorine largely occurs in clay minerals (kaolinite and illite). The elevated concentrations of Tl, Hg, As, and Sb are mainly distributed in pyrite and were derived from the same hydrothermal source. The high W in the coal occurs in both the organic matter and the authigenic quartz. Illite is the major carrier of Cs in the coal. The accumulation of rare earth elements (REE) in the coals had a polygenetic and multistage nature, including two syngenetic stages (early hydrothermal and terrigenous) and one diagenetic (late hydrothermal) stage. The REE distribution patterns of the early hydrothermal and terrigenous stages were characterized by the enrichment of medium REE (M-type REE) and light REE (L-type REE), respectively. A H-type REE distribution pattern (HREE enrichment) occurred in the late diagenetic hydrothermal stage. The high-Ge Wulantuga coals are also abnormally enriched in precious metals. Gold, Pt, and Pd in the coals, calculated from their concentrations in the LTAs, are 3.5–25.8, < 4–25.5, and<2.5–15.5 times higher in comparison with those in the continental crust. The highest concentrations of precious metals occur in the pyrite contained in the coal and are 18 (Pd), 130 (Au), and 725 (Pt) times higher than those of the continental crust. The pyrite is probably the basic carrier of the Pt and some portion of the Au in the coal; additionally, a portion of precious metals may be organically (halogen-organic) bound in the coal. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The open source computational fluid dynamics (CFD) wind model (CFD-WEM) for wind erosion research in the Xilingele grassland in Inner Mongolia (autonomous region, China) is compared with two open source CFD models Gerris and OpenFOAM. The evaluation of these models was made according to software technology, implemented methods, handling, accuracy and calculation speed. All models were applied to the same wind tunnel data set. Results show that the simplest CFD-WEM has the highest calculation speed with acceptable accuracy, and the most powerful OpenFOAM produces the simulation with highest accuracy and the lowest calculation speed. Gerris is between CFD-WEM and OpenFOAM. It calculates faster than OpenFOAM, and it is capable to solve different CFD problems. CFD-WEM is the optimal model to be further developed for wind erosion research in Inner Mongolia grassland considering its efficiency and the uncertainties of other input data. However, for other applications using CFD technology, Gerris and OpenFOAM can be good choices. This paper shows the powerful capability of open source CFD software in wind erosion study, and advocates more involvement of open source technology in wind erosion and related ecological researches. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: According to the industry ecology theory, in the simulating flowing way between substance and energy in the nature ecology, to design the industrial production systems can use less resource reasonably and reduce emissions. As the most important large iron & steel enterprise in Inner Mongolia, applying the theory of industrial ecology, the Baogang Group gains great achievement in energy saving and emission reduction in recent years. Based on the industrial ecology theory, this paper mainly analyzes the practice of energy-saving and ejection-decreasing of the BaoGang Group. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]