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• Learning is inferred from differential behavior in a common test at t2 as a result of differential experiences at t1. • Stimulus learning in zebrafish larvae has been assessed by a change in the response elicitation power of the stimulus. • Stimulus learning is strengthened with more stimulus exposures and possibly with longer interstimulus intervals (ISIs). • Specificity of stimulus learning and the effects of stimulus intensity in the larval zebrafish have yet to be documented. • Stimulus learning has not been assessed by a change in the ability of the stimulus to function as an effective signal or outcome. Within a week of fertilization, a zebrafish larva has developed a robust behavioral repertoire that includes the ability to learn about noncontingent stimuli. I begin this paper with a brief review of the t1-t2 framework in which groups receive different experiences at the first time point (t1) followed by a common assessment at the second time point (t2) and the strengths of this framework for studying stimulus learning. I then describe assays that have been implemented within the t1-t2 framework to demonstrate stimulus learning in the developing zebrafish. I discuss how these assays have been used to address three fundamental questions about stimulus learning: What are the conditions for stimulus learning? What is the content of stimulus learning? How is stimulus learning reflected in behavior? For each of these three questions, I also identify those issues regarding stimulus learning in the developing zebrafish that warrant further analysis at the behavioral level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article is dedicated to the reproduction of behavior of a class of protozoans (ciliates) using computer simulation and genetic optimization. Protozoans have minimal cognitive abilities and no neural system. The only basis of their control system is mRNA and protein systems inside the cell. Ciliates have primitive sensitive receptors which can percept information only from the closest environment. But, nevertheless, unicellular organisms use their cognitive capacities for obstacles avoiding. In this paper, ethology of ciliate Uronychia transfuga is reproduced using a simple GasNet neural network and genetic optimization. It is showed that neural network of only 7 neurons combined with simple learning model is enough to achieve robust and natural behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gamified learning is a novel concept that according to recent studies, can increase student activity and improve learning outcomes. However, little is known about how different students experience and are engaged by it. We present a long-term study which identified distinct behavioral and performance patterns in participants taking a gamified college course. Our study lasted for three years, during which we deployed three consecutive instances of the course, each featuring improvements based on student feedback from the previous instances. To understand how different students behaved in our gamified experience, according to their daily performance, we performed cluster analysis and assessed student engagement in the last year using a formal instrument. We then did a cluster-wise analysis using different performance and behavioral measures, to further assess and characterize every cluster. To wit, we identified six different student clusters, each featuring different behaviors and performance levels. However, only four were present in the last year, which differed in terms of engagement with the course. In this paper we carefully describe each student cluster, explain how they evolved, and derive meaningful design lessons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper offers an active inference account of choice behaviour and learning. It focuses on the distinction between goal-directed and habitual behaviour and how they contextualise each other. We show that habits emerge naturally (and autodidactically) from sequential policy optimisation when agents are equipped with state-action policies . In active inference, behaviour has explorative (epistemic) and exploitative (pragmatic) aspects that are sensitive to ambiguity and risk respectively, where epistemic (ambiguity-resolving) behaviour enables pragmatic (reward-seeking) behaviour and the subsequent emergence of habits. Although goal-directed and habitual policies are usually associated with model-based and model-free schemes, we find the more important distinction is between belief-free and belief-based schemes. The underlying (variational) belief updating provides a comprehensive (if metaphorical) process theory for several phenomena, including the transfer of dopamine responses, reversal learning, habit formation and devaluation. Finally, we show that active inference reduces to a classical (Bellman) scheme, in the absence of ambiguity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We conducted a simulation experiment focused on the development mechanism of self-consciousness using a neural network structured by consciousness modules that we had developed called Module of Nerves for Advanced Dynamics (MoNAD), and succeeded in presenting a system relevant to the development of self-cognition and self-consciousness. This system can suppress, through learning, “imitation behavior as a result of the cognition of another” in response to a “behavior of avoiding pain after feeling the pain by oneself,” and can “formulate” the cognition of oneself. These study results may be highly suggestive of the development of self-consciousness. In this paper, we describe the theoretical basis for the development of the self-cognition of our system, and discuss the experiment and observations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fact that some people who stutter have the ability to anticipate a stuttering moment is essential for several theories of stuttering and important for maximum effectiveness of many currently used treatment techniques. The “anticipation effect,” however, is poorly understood despite much investigation into this phenomenon. In the present paper, we combine (1) behavioral evidence from the stuttering-anticipation literature, (2) speech production models, and (3) models of error detection to propose a theoretical model of anticipation. Integrating evidence from theories such as Damasio's Somatic Marker Hypothesis, Levelt's Perceptual Monitoring Theory, Guenther's The Directions Into Velocities of Articulators (DIVA) model, Postma's Covert Repair Hypothesis, among others, our central thesis is that the anticipation of a stuttering moment occurs as an outcome of the interactions between previous learning experiences (i.e., learnt associations between stuttered utterances and any self-experienced or environmental consequence) and error monitoring. Possible neurological mechanisms involved in generating conscious anticipation are also discussed, along with directions for future research. Educational Objectives : The reader will be able to: (a) describe historical theories that explain how PWS may learn to anticipate stuttering; (b) state some traditional sources of evidence of anticipation in stuttering; (c) describe how PWS may be sensitive to the detection of a stuttering; (d) state some of the neural correlates that may underlie anticipation in stuttering; and (e) describe some of the possible utilities of incorporating anticipation into stuttering interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Synaptic plasticity is a major mechanism for adaptation, learning, and memory. Yet current models struggle to link local synaptic changes to the acquisition of behaviors. The aim of this paper is to demonstrate a computational relationship between local Hebbian plasticity and behavior learning by exploiting two traditionally unwanted features: neural noise and synaptic weight saturation. A modulation signal is employed to arbitrate the sign of plasticity: when the modulation is positive, the synaptic weights saturate to express exploitative behavior; when it is negative, the weights converge to average values, and neural noise reconfigures the network’s functionality. This process is demonstrated through simulating neural dynamics in the autonomous emergence of fearful and aggressive navigating behaviors and in the solution to reward-based problems. The neural model learns, memorizes, and modifies different behaviors that lead to positive modulation in a variety of settings. The algorithm establishes a simple relationship between local plasticity and behavior learning by demonstrating the utility of noise and weight saturation. Moreover, it provides a new tool to simulate adaptive behavior, and contributes to bridging the gap between synaptic changes and behavior in neural computation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The present paper is to examine whether liquiritigenin is able to attenuate the Alzheimer''s-like learning and memory deficits in a transgenic (Tg) mouse model that over-expresses amyloid protein precursor (APP), and explores the underlying mechanisms. Consistent with our previous observations, we found that treatment with liquiritigenin improved the behavioral performance of Tg mice and it attenuated the protein expression of oligomeric form of amyloid β-peptide (Aβ). Furthermore, treatment with liquiritigenin inhibited astrocytosis in the hippocampus, and it may through its inhibitory activities on Notch-2, an important molecular regulating neural proliferation and differentiation. These findings provide evidence for beneficial activity of liquiritigenin in a mouse model of Alzheimer''s disease and support the continued investigation of Notch signaling pathway as a target for treatment of Alzheimer''s disease. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: For some cancer survivors chemotherapy treatment is associated with lasting cognitive impairment, long after treatment cessation. Several candidate mechanisms have been suggested, yet clinical research has been unable to clearly tease apart these hypotheses. Rodent research has allowed a systematic study of these underlying mechanisms in the absence of potential patient confounds. Herein, this research is reviewed with emphasis on the role of the blood–brain barrier, neurogenesis, oxidative stress, white matter, immune system/(neuro) inflammation, HPA axis, blood flow, and cancer in chemotherapy-induced cognitive impairment. Furthermore, potential pharmacotherapy and behavioral intervention strategies are reviewed. This paper ends with methodological considerations in study of chemotherapy and cognition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The use of pigs in neuroscience research has increased in the past decade, which has seen broader recognition of the potential of pigs as an animal for experimental modeling of human brain disorders. The volume of available background data concerning pig brain anatomy and neurochemistry has increased considerably in recent years. The pig brain, which is gyrencephalic, resembles the human brain more in anatomy, growth and development than do the brains of commonly used small laboratory animals. The size of the pig brain permits the identification of cortical and subcortical structures by imaging techniques. Furthermore, the pig is an increasingly popular laboratory animal for transgenic manipulations of neural genes. The present paper focuses on evaluating the potential for modeling symptoms, phenomena or constructs of human brain diseases in pigs, the neuropsychiatric disorders in particular. Important practical and ethical aspects of the use of pigs as an experimental animal as pertaining to relevant in vivo experimental brain techniques are reviewed. Finally, current knowledge of aspects of behavioral processes including learning and memory are reviewed so as to complete the summary of the status of pigs as a species suitable for experimental models of diverse human brain disorders. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Spatial learning abilities of rodents have been extensively used to explore the management of a wide range of cognitive and emotional processes such as learning, memory, attention and anxiety. Knowledge about the organization and processing of spatial learning has mainly been obtained in rats. Due to increasing generation of genetically modified mice, cognitive abilities of mice are now extensively tested. The present paper aimed at comparing spatial representation, learning and strategies in C57BL/6J mice and Long-Evans Hooded rats when subjected to the same spatial learning paradigm, i.e. learning a food location in a crossmaze. We also analyzed the influence of environmental richness on learning modalities in both species. Our results showed that rats and mice could exhibit similar spatial learning abilities in some circumstances. However, Long-Evans rats and C57BL/6J mice may set up different strategies depending on the availability of visual information within the environment. Rats’ learning strategies mainly relied on distant visual cues and seemed more efficient than those used by mice as they needed less time than mice to solve the task. We emphasize that the strategies of mice are less robust and flexible than the ones set up by rats. Finally, the richness of the environment was shown to affect speed and quality of spatial learning in both species. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Learning environmental biases is a rational behavior: by using prior odds, Bayesian networks rapidly became a benchmark in machine learning. Moreover, a growing body of evidence now suggests that humans are using base rate information. Unsupervised connectionist networks are used in computer science for machine learning and in psychology to model human cognition, but it is unclear whether they are sensitive to prior odds. In this paper, we show that hard competitive learners are unable to use environmental biases while recurrent associative memories use frequency of exemplars and categories independently. Hence, it is concluded that recurrent associative memories are more useful than hard competitive networks to model human cognition and have a higher potential in machine learning. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper concerns the concepts of conjectures and reactions of agents in a dynamic context, a framework where agents form conjectures on how the other agents (would) react to their actions and update this belief according to observations. They decide based on this conjecture without knowing profit functions of other agents. Agents somehow “learn” about the behavior (including the conjectures) of the other agents. We show that some type of “consistency” of these conjectures spontaneously appears. We discuss the Pareto-optimality and the local stability of the strategies obtained in the long run and analyze the example of Cournot’s oligopoly. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Common-pool resources (CPRs) typically involve interaction where precise information about payoffs is absent. However, all experimental studies of CPRs we are aware of study environments where the payoff structure is known. In this paper we address the behavioral consequences of two degrees of information on the mapping between decisions and payoffs. We run two treatments, one with complete information on the payoff structure and one with none. Remarkably, aggregate behavior is not significantly different between the two treatments. In both cases the aggregate tendencies converge to the Nash equilibrium. Furthermore, the best-reply dynamics organize individual behavior in both treatments remarkably well. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Adults and children readily construct action representations organized with respect to an ultimate goal. These representations allow one to predict the consequences of action, interpret and describe actions, and categorize action sequences. In this paper, we explore the ontogeny of hierarchically organized action representations, and its relation to infants'' ability to produce similar sequences. To do so, we examine infants'' perception and performance of a means-end sequence: pulling a cloth to retrieve a toy. Using a visual habituation paradigm, we demonstrate that 12-month-old infants understand that the initial step of the cloth-pulling sequence is directed toward the ultimate goal of attaining the toy, and use their knowledge of the causal constraints of the sequence to make this goal attribution. Ten-month-olds, however, appear transitional with respect to this understanding: their ability to identify the goal of the cloth-pulling sequence is related to their own ability to planfully solve a similar sequence. These findings are consistent with a burgeoning body of literature suggesting an intimate link between action production and perception, and suggest that this link is in place by at least 10 months of age. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Subspace analysis is one of popular multivariate data analysis methods, which has been widely used in pattern recognition. Typically data space belongs to very high dimension, but only a few principal components need to be extracted. In this paper, we present a fast sequential algorithm which behaves like expectation maximization (EM), for subspace analysis or tracking. In addition we also present a slight modification of the subspace algorithm by employing a rectifier, that is quite useful in handling nonnegative data (for example, images), which leads to rectified subspace analysis. The useful behavior of our proposed algorithms are confirmed through numerical experimental results with toy data and dynamic PET images. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Within the scope of inductive inference a recursion theoretic approach is used to model learning behaviour. The fundamental model considered is Gold''s identification of recursive functions in the limit. Modifying the corresponding definition has proposed several inference classes, which have been compared regarding the capacities of the relevant learners. The present paper is concerned with a meta-version of this learning model. Given a description of a class of target functions, a uniform learner is supposed to develop a specific successful method for learning the represented class. The same modifications as in the elementary model are considered in the context of uniform learning, especially respecting identification capacities. It turns out that the former separations of inference classes are reflected on the meta-level, in particular finite classes of recursive functions—which constitute the most simple learning problems in the elementary model—are evidence of these separations. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The general hypothesis underlying this paper is that behavior in traditional paradigms of laboratory learning is based on niche-related mechanisms. The specific hypothesis is that the behavior of Norway rats in laboratory mazes is based on niche-related mechanisms related to trail following and navigating. I evaluate seven types of evidence for this hypothesis: (a) resemblance of maze behavior to behavior in unconstrained settings; (b) importance of experimenter tuning of apparatus and procedures; (c) overdetermination of laboratory behavior; (d) reverse-engineering of niche-related mechanisms from laboratory data; (e) prediction of laboratory results from ecological data; (f) contribution of specific relative to general mechanisms; and (g) phylogenetic conservation and ecologically-based convergence and divergence of maze mechanisms. I conclude there is strong evidence for the hypothesis that behavior of rats in laboratory mazes is based on niche-related mechanisms. I suggest that a niche-related approach to laboratory learning paradigms has conceptual generality and the potential to facilitate connections with the study of neurophysiology, genetics, and evolution. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Objective: One goal of the Kempe Center's Perpetration Prevention Program has been to increase the awareness and competence of professionals and parents in understanding and responding to the sexual behaviors of children in order to reduce the risk of children developing sexually abusive patterns of behavior. A decade of exploration and the development of curricula is reviewed in this paper. Method: The evolving body of literature relevant to childhood sexuality and sexually abusive behaviors in childhood was reviewed. Several new sources of information and development of a teaching model for adults are described. Results: Children engage in a wide range of sexual behaviors, some of which may be observed by or reported to adults. Research encompassing diverse samples and methods converges to describe what is developmentally expected and what might be problematic. Professionals need to be trained to evaluate and respond to these behaviors objectively, without relying on the personal beliefs or values of individuals. Conclusion: Children have a legitimate need for validation and correction of sexual learning. Adults often have not been trained to respond consistently to children's behaviors, but are eager to obtain more information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Footprint indicators help officials understand sustainable consumption concepts. • Officials' use of indicators leads to some changes in practice and new activities. • To enhance learning, indicator development must go beyond technical questions. • Officials need institutions and leaders' support to promote sustainable consumption. • Officials need more support to navigate conflicts revealed by footprint indicators. Consumption-based environmental indicators, also termed footprints, give a sense of society's progress towards sustainable consumption. Although they have been published for several decades, little is known about their use and influence in policymaking. From the wider body of research into the use and influence of sustainability indicators, we see evidence that sustainability indicators contribute to learning and conceptual thinking in policymaking. This paper explores whether this is also the case for footprint indicators, and how any conceptual thinking or learning might come about from their use. We investigate these questions, along with whether the use of footprint indicators affects wider social and organizational structures to prompt the desired move to sustainable consumption, and how, therefore, the value of indicators as learning instruments might be enhanced. The analysis draws on activity theory, focusing on expansive learning. It uses data from a series of interviews, focus groups and workshops with Swedish public officials at national, regional and local government levels. We find that footprint indicators helped officials to learn about the concept of sustainable consumption and push the agenda forward while awaiting clearer political targets and mandates. This was not, however, due to the indicators alone, but rather to the creative practices and agency of committed government officials. Meanwhile, the use of indicators often takes place through one-way communication activities aimed at changing the behaviour of other actors; there is less evidence of their use to support dialogue among diverse views and interests. We conclude that if the aim is to change practices toward sustainable consumption throughout society, then political executives must put the necessary institutions and authority in place alongside the indicators, to support public officials tasked with implementation. This must be linked to a deeper political debate about what the policy agenda entails. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Technological advancements have generated a strong interest in exploring learner behavior data through learning analytics to provide both learner and instructor with process-oriented feedback in the form of dashboards. However, little is known about the typology of dashboard feedback relevant for different learning goals, learners and teachers. While most dashboards and the feedback that they give are based only on learner performance indicators, research shows that effective feedback needs also to be grounded in the regulatory mechanisms underlying learning processes and an awareness of the learner's learning goals. The design artefact presented in this article uses a conceptual model that visualizes the relationships between dashboard design and the learning sciences to provide cognitive and behavioral process-oriented feedback to learners and teachers to support regulation of learning. A practical case example is given that demonstrates how the ideas presented in the paper can be deployed in the context of a learning dashboard. The case example uses several analytics/visualization techniques based on empirical evidence from earlier research that successfully tested these techniques in various learning contexts. • Little is known about the typology of dashboard feedback. • Most dashboards feedback are based only on learner performance. • The work grounds the dashboard design on learning science concepts. • The design aims at cognitive and behavioral process-oriented feedback. • A case example is given that demonstrates how the ideas can be deployed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]