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The failure mode is a dominant factor of mechanical performance of braided composite tube subjected to axial compression. The failure mode was modified by tailoring stack-up sequence of composite tubes hybridized by bi/tri-axial braided laminate. The thermal photographing and micro-CT scanning methods were employed to monitor the in-situ damage progression and post-mortem specimen, respectively. The results show that the delamination was easy to be induced at the interface nearby tri-axial braided laminate. It attributes to the combination between the crack caused by local buckling of the axial yarns and the crack caused by shear deformation of braiding yarns. By the illumination of this behavior, delamination is controlled to occur at the different position along thickness direction of braided tube by adjusting the stacking sequence of braided laminates. When delamination position transfer from the inner/outer sides to the middle of tube wall, the failure mode transfer from the progressive folding to splaying, which increase the specific energy absorption by 45.77%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Composite tubes have an asymmetry deformation and loading distribution under transverse bending. This work investigated the effect of the stacking sequence on the critical damage to a hybrid tube with 45° and 60° braided layers. In-situ infrared thermal imaging was adopted to observe the initiation and development of internal damage. As the outermost reinforcing material in the stacking structure, the 60° braided layer with high contact strength inhibited damage to the contact area at the top and improved the bending strength of the specimen at the initial stage of loading. As the inner reinforcing material in the stacking structure, the 45° braided layer with high bending toughness maintained the high stability of the load-carrying capacity during bending and restrained the tensile failure at the bottom of the tube. However, the interlaminar interface of braided layers with different braiding angles reduced the interlaminar fracture toughness. The interlaminar delamination failure developed rapidly as the bending at the bottom of the tube increased. This delamination damage determines the peak load-carrying capacity of the laminated structure. • The mechanical behavior of the stacking structure braided tube with the outer 60° braid and the inner 45° braid be studied. • Infrared thermography is applied to detect and analyze damage distribution degree in the loading process. • The load and damage distribution of stacking structure braided tubes are analyzed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The usage of correlation between maximum temperature and peak load. • The reconstruction of CT images identifies the debonding distribution and degree. • A novel inspection way of combing infrared imaging and micro CT reconstruction methods. • The role of axial yarns in axial crushing. In this work, the effect of axial yarns on damage behavior of two-dimensional triaxially braided composite(2DTBC) tubes subjected to axial compression was investigated. A novel damage detection method combining infrared thermography and CT scanning was presented. In the area without axial yarns, yarn crossovers were separated from each other due to interlacing patterns. Axial compression caused the braiding yarns to shear deformation like scissors. Inter-yarn de-bonding appeared in crossovers and could not connect. Consequently, it caused a progressively folding failure mode. In contrast, local buckling occurred on axial yarns because of their primary loading behavior. Cracks along the axial yarns formed, which would combine with debonding crossovers caused by the sheared braiding yarn. It resulted in significant inter-layer delamination and consequently splaying failure mode. The energy absorption of composites tube with 18 axial yarns increased by 79.9% at the cost of 27.8% fiber usage more than 3 axial yarns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Difference of damage modes caused by the boundary conditions of primary load-bearing yarns. • Straightening effect of braided yarns with undulations under low-velocity impact. • Variation of off-axial angles leading to the transition of failure modes. The sensitivity of off-axial angle on impact response was investigated by experimental and numerical methods in this work. Three types of braided laminates with different on/off-axial angles in terms of OA00, OA225 and OA45 were prepared and low-velocity impact tests with various energy levels were performed. Meso-level finite element model (FEM) was also developed to reveal impact damage initiation and development. We discovered that the boundary condition of primary load-bearing yarns depending on the off-axial angles caused the difference of structural deformation and stress distribution of braiding yarns during impact process. Due to the restriction of the pressurized tips, the straightening effect of primary load-bearing yarns with heavy waviness caused its out-of-plane movement and related main cracks in OA00 specimen. In addition, the matrix resin cracks were found at the edge of the specimen because of in-plane shear movement of braiding yarns. As for OA45 specimen, more evident bending deformation was observed, resulting in elevated tensile stress of braiding yarns on non-impact side. The variation of off-axial angle from 0 to 45 degree led to the failure mode transforming from the extensive matrix damage on specimen edge to the severe fiber breakage on non-impact side. As a medium off-axial angle, OA225 specimen exhibited a mixture failure mode to resist impact and achieved excellent performance with respect to higher peak force and delayed load dropping. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The transverse impact response of hybrid biaxial/uniaxial braided tube was studied. • The effects of architecture hybridization and stacking sequence were identified. • Proposed FE model provided accurate predication of the impact behaviors. Tubular composites in automobile engineering are susceptible to transverse loading events. This paper deals with transverse low-velocity impacts on interply hybrid tubes made of biaxial/uniaxial braided fabric layers. For comparison, drop weight tests were performed on hybrid tubes with biaxial braided surface layers and uniaxial braided inner layer (BUB), with contrary stacking sequence (UBU), pure biaxial and uniaxial braided tubes (BBB and UUU). Numerical models were established to predict the impact behaviors and evaluate the hybrid effects. X-ray micro-computed tomography (Micro-CT) was also employed to identity the cracking location and characterize the damage mechanism. The results showed that the impact response of braided tube was related to its structural deformation resistance, which was determined by properties of reinforced layers varying with different stacking sequence. The hybrid effect became more obvious at higher impact energy. At impact energy of 15.4 J, hybrid tube (BUB) yielded the highest impact resistance with small structural deformation. The biaxial braided layer protected the specimen surface by constraining intralaminar crack propagation through the interlacing patterns. Meanwhile, it promoted crack tip propagating to the subsequent uniaxial braided layer and transferred the impact load. Thus, the material involvement of the inner layer was improved, which was responsible for providing a higher in-plane tensile property due to its low yarn crimp. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The impact response of carbon/glass intralaminar hybrid braided pipes was studied. • Impact behaviors of hybrid pipes with and without internal pressure were compared. • The damage extension mechanisms were analyzed by micro-CT 3D damage reconstruction. • Ductile and brittle hybrid fibers restrict each other and promote impact resistance. • The hybrid fiber layout and the internal pressure had a synergistic effect. This study investigated the low-velocity impact behaviors of intralaminar hybrid carbon/glass braided composite pipes under internal pressure. The effects of intralaminar fiber layout and internal pressure on the mechanical responses, damage extension, and material cost-effectiveness were analyzed. The internal damage distribution of composite pipes with different hybrid fiber alternating numbers but identical mix ratios was evaluated through Micro-CT three-dimensional damage reconstructions. The yarn splitting of brittle carbon fiber materials was mutually prevented by the induction of intra-yarn debonding and delamination damages by hybridization with ductile glass fiber materials, which were prone to produce out-of-plane displacement and shear stresses under impact loading. A smaller hybrid fiber alternating unit was conducive to exploiting the hybrid impact toughening effect by avoiding pure reinforced fiber materials aggregated under the impactor. Internal pressure had a supporting effect on the composite pipe and was effectively synergistic with the hybridization effect. The change in the dominant damage mode resulted in significant reductions in impact deformation and damage severity compared to the unpressurized case. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The delamination damage distribution induced by multi-impact was identified. • The sensitivity of axial compression performance to impact damage was studied. • Proposed FE model provided accurate predication for CAI scenario of braided tube. In this study, damage behaviors and residual crashworthiness characteristics of braided composite tube with transverse pre-impact damages subjected to axial compression were investigated by experimental and numerical methods. The compression tests were conducted on intact, single impact and repeated impact tubes at identical, adjacent and opposite positions to analyze the effects of impact damages. A multi-step finite element model considering the progressive damage characteristics was developed in ABAQUS/Explicit to predict the failure behaviors of braided tube. It was found that the damage behavior and residual performance of braided tube subjected to axial compression were dominated by impact induced delamination distribution with respect to area and position. A relatively small delamination area induced by single impact resulted in similar progressive folding damage mode and energy absorption capacity as in intact tube. For repeated impact, delamination with increased area at identical position leaded to local buckling damage mode, while small delamination areas distributed at adjacent and opposite positions caused U-shape and W-shape fracturing damage modes, respectively. Consequently, the transformation of damage mode resulted in significantly reduced residual crashworthiness characteristics in repeated impact tubes compared to intact and single impact tubes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work investigated off-axial angle effect on in-plane compression behavior of 3D orthogonal woven(3DOW) composite under both quasi-static and dynamic loading. Mechanical responses of 3DOW specimens with different off-axial angles were evaluated using a universal material tester and a split Hopkinson pressure bar(SHPB) testbench. An infrared thermographic camera was used to record temperature rising of the specimens in order to characterize the damage development in quasi-static compression. A yarn-level finite element model considering progressive damage behavior of impregnated yarn, matrix resin and their interface were also established to reveal the deformation behavior and failure mechanism. It is found that the off-axial angle has significant influence on compressive response and failure mode. The modulus and compressive strength of specimens exhibited a decreasing tendency with increase of off-axial angle, while failure strain had a rising trend. In addition, the role of z-yarn was identified in different off-axial angle cases. For on-axial specimen, the z-yarn suppressed out-of-plane deformation of superficial weft yarns failing in kinking mode. It in turn caused intensive z-yarn breakage, which accompanied by high temperature rising. For off-axial specimens, rotation deformation of weft and warp yarns was observed, which was restrained by z-yarn. It leaded to extensive debonding between matrix and yarns and delamination characterized by relative low temperature rising. • The effect of off-axial effect on the compressive impact response of 3D orthogonal woven composite was identified. • The FEA model predicted accurately the compressive impact behavior of specimens. • The effect of z-yarn was identified by FEA analysis model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Braided composite laminates allow a reinforcement architecture design method of varying ply-to-ply braided structure instead of rotating fiber orientation in traditional unidirectional laminates. The stacking sequence sensitivities of braided laminates subjected to low-velocity impact were experimentally studied. Uniform ([±45° 6 ]) and non-uniform ([±30° 2 /±45° 2 /±60° 2 ]) architectures were designed to evaluate the effect of braided structure on impact performance. In addition, non-uniform laminate was impacted on both sides to identify the role of impact side on the failure mode. Quasi-static indentation was conducted to understand the damage initiation and propagation of braided laminates. The experimental results show that braided ply with high crimp level in impact side induced the main cracks along the load-carrying yarn, causing that the laminate failed in a kink-band dominated mode. For braided ply with low crimp level, a micro-buckling damage was found in the impact side, leading to the delamination dominated failure mode. It was also found that uniform braided laminate presents inferior impact resistance with respect to lower peak load and more concentrated damage because the kink-band can propagate into the specimen along braiding yarn easily. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, damage behavior and failure mode of braided composite tube subjected to repeated transverse low-velocity impact were investigated by combining experimental and numerical methods. The effects of impact energy (2.0 J, 5.6 J and 10.5 J) and impact position (identical, adjacent and opposite positions) on impact responses were evaluated. A finite element (FE) model with high computational efficiency was also established to predict the effect of single impact on the repeated impact response by varying boundary conditions. When subjected to single impact, the braided tube presented delamination-dominated damage behaviors caused by obvious structural deformation. The top part sunken and both lateral sides bulged, were found to have correlation with the mechanical response of tube with respect to initial scope and peak load, respectively. The delamination area increased at higher impact energies due to increasing shear stress caused by adjacent braided layers. Delamination induced by the first impact had different role on repeated impact responses. At identical position, it caused larger sinking deformation at top part of the tube and thus a lower initial scope. At adjacent position with impact energy of 5.6/10.5 J, the delamination damage caused a reduced resistance to bulging deformation at one lateral side of the tube, leading to a lower peak load. At opposite position, it had no obvious influence on repeated impact response. • The damage behavior of braided tube subjected to single transverse impact with different impact energy was investigated. • Mechanical response of repeated impact depended on delamination position caused by single impact. • The proposed numerical model can provide accuracy results for repeated impact scenario. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study aims to understand the effect of stacking sequence on the impact response and residual flexure characteristics of braided composite tube by combination of low-velocity impact, fracture observation and acoustic emission monitoring. Two stacking sequence configurations of braided tube in terms of [I60/O40] and [I40/O60] were designed and their low-velocity impact response and damage behavior were examined. Uniform structures namely [I40/O40] and [I60/O60] were also employed as reference specimens. The quasi-static bending performances of intact and impacted tubes were further compared to evaluate the influence of impact damage on residual performance. The results show that failure mode of impacted tubes strongly depends on braided structure of outer ply, of which large braiding angle(60°) leads to the formation of bottom delamination and degradation of structural integrity. The comparative experiments indicate that [I60/O40] tube improves flexure after impact performance with respect to specific energy absorption by 45.98% over [I40/O60] counterpart because of absence of bottom delamination. Thus, structure design of braided composite consisting of intra-ply structure and stacking sequence would be an economically feasible method to improve the transverse mechanical performance. • The braided structure of outer ply has a decisive role on the failure mode of composite tube under transverse impact. • There was a sharp load dropping when a bottom delamination occurred in intact braided tube under quasi-static bending. • Bottom delamination induced by impact significantly reduced residual bending performance of braided tube. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The effect of ply number on the impact response was identified. • The effect of impact damage on the residual axial compression behavior was analyzed. • The proposed two-step FE model predicted accurately the damage behaviors of braided tube. In this study, transverse low-velocity impact response and residual axial compression behavior of braided composite tube with different ply number was investigated by experimental and numerical methods. The transverse low-velocity impact tests with 5.6 J energy were conducted on the composite tubes. The quasi-static axial compression performance of intact and pre-impacted tubes was compared to evaluate the effect of impact damage. A two-step finite element (FE) model was also established to reveal damage mechanisms of braided tube under impact loading and following axial compression. It was found that the wall thickness had a significant influence on the impact response. Obvious structural deformation occurred in 2-ply tube when subjected to impact loading, resulting in a large projected delamination area. In following axial compression process, the delamination failure significantly reduced the local compression stiffness and caused a structural instability, which led to a buckling failure mode. In contrast, increasing bending stiffness of 3 or 4-ply tube suppressed its structural deformation during impact, leading to a confined projected delamination area and therefore the buckling of tube wall was prevented effectively when subjected to axial compression. For all impacted tubes, the transition of failure mode from progressive folding mode in intact tube led to a lower energy absorption capacity per composite ply, especially for 2-ply tube. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This investigation is aimed to study the dynamic failure behavior of 3-D braided carbon/epoxy composite by capturing the high-speed infrared image and simulating the temperature-rise response under high strain-rate compression. It is found that localized temperature rise is a good indication in damage and failure of the 3-D braided composite. Localized temperature can rise above a hundred degrees Celsius, reaching or even exceeding the T g of the matrix resin and imperiling the polymer along damage regions in specimen. Temperature rise in localized paths of the specimens was caused by adiabatic shear along the boundaries of braided fibers or inside the fiber bundles. Sustaining decrease in stress after the peak strength is related to shear deformation, temperature rise and progressive damage. There is a correlation among localization of temperature rise, adiabatic shear band, resin softening, damages and failures in the 3-D braided carbon/epoxy composite under dynamic compression loading. For the out-of-plane compression, temperature always conducts from the broken interface to the inside of the fiber bundles along the radial, which will lead to the weakening of resin in fiber bundles. And damages, penetrating cracks and openings are verified with 'X'-shape localization of temperature rise. With the increase of strain rate, localization of temperature rise indicates that adiabatic shear bands begin to connect together to form larger and longer paths by the mutual shear effect among adjacent fiber bundles. For the in-plane compression, multi-cracks are found by observing the independent 'zigzag' shear bands converting to dependent 'zigzag' network. The temperature is easily localized at the crimp position of fiber bundle when they forming the 'zigzag' localization along the braiding paths of fiber bundles. However, some regions in 3-D braided carbon/epoxy composite have not experienced plastic shear deformation, which are isolated among 'zigzag' adiabatic shear network and their boundaries are the very paths for localized temperature rise. • Temperature rise in 3-D braided carbon/epoxy composite under dynamic loading is associated with damage and failure. • The localized temperature rise can be observed by high-speed infrared imaging and simulated by mesostructural modeling. • There is a correlation among localization of temperature rise, adiabatic shear band, resin softening, damages and failures in the 3-D braided carbon/epoxy composite. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of axial yarns on progressive bending damage of braided composite tubes is studied in this paper. Four specimens with different number and distribution of axial yarns were experimentally tested by quasi-static three-point bending. At the same time, infrared thermography was used to observe the damage in-situ. Combined with the cross-section morphology of Ultra-Depth 3D Microscope, the damage evolution and distribution characteristics of braided tubes were identified. It is found that axial yarns enhance the mechanical properties of braided composite tube. The detected changes of infrared maximum temperature have a good correlation with the damage initiation and failure mechanism of the specimen. The abrupt changes of the maximum temperature indicate the occurrence of local fiber breakage, especially the axial yarn breakage. If there are axial yarns on the compression side of the tube, the maximum temperature increases by 0.5 °C in the linear elastic stage, and two initial damages of debonding and fiber breakage will occur. The debonding started at the interface of the axial yarn. The axial yarns increased fiber crimp, resulting in obvious wavy delamination between layers of the specimen, and the axial damage range was expanded. In addition, the mixed structure with axial yarns only on the compression side can inhibit the damage from spreading down the braided tube wall. • The progressive bending damage of triaxial braided tube was studied. • The abrupt change of infrared maximum temperature indicates local fiber breakage. • The mixed structure with axial yarns only in the upper half can inhibit damage spreading downward. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A modified-YOLOv5s was proposed to detect defects of wire braided hoses. • K-means++ clustering algorithm is adopted to obtain more suitable anchor boxes. • Focal loss function was adopted to balance between negative and positive samples. • New tailored prediction heads and efficient channel attention (ECA) mechanism were used to improve the detection performance. High-pressure steel wire braided hoses have periodic braided steel wire structure and its productivity is too huge to refrain from making mistakes occasionally such as wire missed wire stacked and wire loosened. The major sticking points in detection are ultra-small, structural similarity and high reflectance of the steel wire braided hoses. Therefore, this paper proposed an automated method based on YOLOv5 to replace traditional naked eyes detection. The anchor boxes were optimized by K-means++ algorithm for defects dataset. Focal loss was used to mitigate the impact of samples imbalance. The predict heads were modified to increase the detection accuracy of ultra-small targets with guaranteeing speed. The effect of efficient channel attention mechanism (ECA) in different positions was analyzed to achieve a better network and increase detection performance. The experimental results showed that the accuracy and recognition efficiency of the proposed modified-YOLOv5s model could reach 92.2% and 23 frames per second. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accurately identifying various meso-morphological features and sub-phases within the damaged braided composite fabric is crucial for assessing the mechanical properties of composites under complex loading conditions and different processing parameters. However, obtaining 3D reconstructions that can be quantitatively analyzed is still a challenge, primarily due to the low contrast of the meso-morphological features (yarn tow and matrix crack networks). In this work, a new data enhancement algorithm is proposed to generate a realistic-looking artificial training dataset for enriching the information of the meso-morphological features. Then, the effect of various training networks and training parameters (the size of real and hybrid training dataset, number of epochs) on segmentation performance were examined. Finally, the meso-morphological features were statistically analyzed to accurately evaluate the mechanical properties of the composite material. The work presented here provides an effective tool that enables the quantitative analysis of the dynamic crack evolution process under the axial load of the composite materials. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Localized deformation and damage mechanism of triaxial braided composite tubes, with different quantities and positions of axial yarns, were experimentally studied under transverse low-velocity impact. A high-speed infrared thermography was applied to analyze the transient thermo-mechanical failure process and afterwards verified by the external and internal damage characterization. It is found that the distribution of axial yarns has a significant effect on the mechanical behavior of braided composite tubes. The bending stiffness and peak force of the tubes were enhanced with the increased quantity of axial yarns, while the impact lasting time and displacement presented an opposite trend. And the more axial yarns assembled at the impact side, the greater force oscillatory of the tubes under low-velocity impact, accompanied by the decreased heat generation in small-angle braided tubes and the alleviated fiber tows fracture, delamination and in-plane shear cracks inside the wall of large-angle braided tubes. On the premise of the same quantity of axial yarns, the position effect plays a key role. Axial yarns concentrated at the impact side could restrain the damages spreading to the non-impact side by changing the damage mode of large-angle braided tubes. If a larger force is needed at the early stage, axial yarns could be inserted at the local position most probably to be impacted; Otherwise, it is highly suggested to braid at least one axial yarn in each layer at the impact side and non-impact side respectively to reinforce localized strength and prevent the impact-side indentation and non-impact-side delamination. • High-speed IR thermography verified by the external and internal damage characterization. • Effect of axial yarn quantity and location on mechanical behavior and damage mechanism. • Force oscillation response caused by dense distribution of axial yarns at the impact side. • Necessity of axial yarns in alleviating the severity of localized damages at the impact side. • Importance to install at least one axial yarn at the non-impact side of large-angle braided tube. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two-dimensional triaxial braided composite (2DTBC) often fails by external force from different directions in service. In this work, the in-plane compression failure mechanism of 2DTBC was studied along the axial (0°), off-axial (±60°) and perpendicular (90°) directions at quasi-static and high strain rate. The progressive failure process was recorded by infrared thermography with the final morphology using computer tomography technology. A three-dimensional mesoscale finite element model was established to simulate the initiation, accumulation and propagation of various damages. The results show that the in-plane compression strength, strain, energy absorption and failure mode of 2DTBC depends on whether there are main load-bearing (axial or braided) yarns directly transferring stress along load directions. The occurrence and development of localized damages can be captured by high-speed IR thermography and verified by final morphology. The in-plane failure mechanism of 2DTBC is induced by different dominating factors under different load directions, such as the out-of-plane movement of braided yarns, kinking effect at crimp positions, structure antisymmetry effect, buckling and shear instability. • Effect of main load-bearing (axial or braided) yarns during the in-plane compression. • Occurrence and development of damages captured by high-speed IR thermography. • Effect of yarns out-of-plane movement, kinking, buckling and shear instability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To meet the demand of lightweight truss, thin-walled single-/double-/four-cell carbon fiber reinforced polymethacrylimide foam sandwich composite beams were manufactured by tubular braiding. Transverse impact damage and axial compression failure of the braided sandwich beams were investigated by finite element modeling, micro-CT detection, acoustic emission and infrared imaging characterization. It is found that impact damage concentrated at edges of the indentation region, internal CFRP walls and surrounding foams. Different from the continuous vertical wall in double-cell beam, cracks on the internal vertical wall of four-cell beam were suppressed at half height due to the discontinuous horizontal wall. During the axial compression, six failure modes were observed for non-impacted(0J) and impacted(40J, 60J, 80J) specimens, which were determined by the combined effect of impacted damages and inner configurations. And the inner configurations have an advantage over the transverse impact effect on the axial failure mechanism. Unlike the single-cell beams, the double- and four-cell counterparts did not present buckling or bending failures owing to the effective support from internal CFRP walls, however, more significant fracture was found at their outer CFRP layers due to the progressive mechanism of shear, tearing, splaying, and separation. • Integral braiding and net forming of sandwich beams with complex cross sections. • Mutual verification by micro-CT, FE analysis, and morphology characterization. • Real-time failure analysis by joint application of AE and IR method. • Effect of pre-impact and inner configurations on CAI properties of sandwich beams. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]