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Adaptation of port infrastructures to climate change and sea level rise effects is highlighted as a key field among transportation systems' lines of action for adaptation, given their highly exposed location in coastal areas and position as critical nodes in logistic chains and local, regional and national economies. The present work proposes an adaptation assessment framework that, based on a high-resolution compound climate risk assessment, identifies the main threats that climate change may pose to port performance, defines a set of optimized adaptation measures and characterizes constraints for implementation, and finally evaluates the applicability and effectiveness of these measures under diverse climate scenarios and different time frames. The framework is applied in a study case located in the northern coast of Spain. It is shown that the proposed methodology enables port managers and planners to develop tailor-fitted adaptation plans, providing tools to make them coherent with actual and future uncertain climate conditions. • The paper develops a novel framework to prepare climate change adaptation plans for port and coastal infrastructures. • It identifies the main needs and limitations for adaptation of port infrastructures based on a compound CC risk assessment. • It identifies and optimizes a set of adaptation measures, considering measure combinations, based on risk-reduction criteria. • It assesses the adaptation options' effectiveness in reducing climate risk for different scenarios and time horizons. • The framework has been applied and validated for a case study located on the Atlantic coast in Spain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, an innovative framework is introduced for assessing the impact of climate change on coastal structures, with a primary emphasis on modeling future climate conditions. The framework encompasses several key components: the development of a new climate emulator to facilitate multivariate extreme value analysis; a hybrid statistical–numerical wave propagation strategy; and the integration of a novel compound modeling approach specific to coastal structure sites. These advancements are designed to effectively manage multiple climate scenarios and models within the context of high uncertainty. The methodology is applied and validated for a coastal structure located on the Mediterranean coast in Spain. Focusing on compound wave and sea-level events, the projections indicate an increase in the frequency and severity of extreme conditions, exacerbating coastal impacts such as wave overtopping. For instance, the present-day 500-year coastal flooding level would be associated with a return period of 50 years by mid-century under a stabilization scenario and would be further reduced to 25 years under a high-emission global warming scenario, resulting in important consequences for structure performance if no adaptation is implemented. • Develops a framework for assessing the impact of climate change on coastal structures. • It develops a new climate emulator to facilitate multivariate extreme value analysis. • It encompasses a hybrid statistical–numerical wave propagation strategy. • It integrates a novel compound modeling approach specific to coastal structures sites. • It has been applied and validated for a coastal structure in Spain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a growing interest on how climate change may affect the energy sector, including changes in wind energy generation. This paper builds on existing research adding an economic component that considers how climate change can affect operating margins and investment values in specific wind farms in Spain. A projection of wind speed was carried out using an ensemble of three climate models, two scenarios (RCP 4.5 and 8.5) and two time periods (2018–2041 and 2042–2065) per plant. Using historical power curves, the changes in wind speed were converted to production output. The results show variations in production of up to 8% and changes in operating margins up to 10%. Seasonal generation may fluctuate as well, with an increase in summer and decrease in winter. An investment analysis was also conducted to consider how climate change may influence future developments in the sector. • Climate change will affect wind speed and therefore wind energy production. • In four wind farms in Spain we project variations in wind speed of up to ± 5%. • This will imply changes in production (±8%) and in operative margins (±10%). • The regulatory framework is more relevant in comparison. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marine renewable energies can play a key role by reducing the dependency on fossil fuels and, therefore, mitigating climate change. Among them, it is expected that wave energy will experience rapid growth in the upcoming decades. Thus, it is important to know how wave climate will change and how suitable the wave energy converters (WECs) will be to the new wave conditions. This paper aims to evaluate the capability of four different WECs—a WaveRoller type device (WRTD), Atargis, AquaBuoy and RM5—to extract wave energy on the Northwest coast of Spain (NWCS). The analysis was performed using the high-resolution wave data obtained from the Simulating Waves Nearshore (SWAN) model over the near future winters (2026–2045). The energy output (P E), the power load factor (ε), the normalized capture width (NC w) and the operational time (OT) were analyzed. According to these parameters, among the devices that work for intermediate-deep waters, Atargis would be the best option (P E = 1400 ± 56 kW, ε = 55.4 ± 2.2%, NC w = 35.5 ± 4.1% and OT = 84.5 ± 3.3%). The WRTD would also be a good option for shallow nearshore areas with P E = 427 ± 248 kW, ε = 12.8 ± 7.4%, NC w = 48.9 ± 9.6% and OT = 88.7 ± 18.9%. A combination of Atargis and WRTDs is proposed to make up the future wave energy farms on the NWCS. • Dynamical downscaling using SWAN to simulate near-shore wave conditions. • Wave energy converters suitability is analyzed in the context of climate change. • Atargis is the most suitable device to future sea conditions in intermediate waters. • WaveRoller type devices can constitute future wave farms for shallow waters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper evaluates the net effect of renewable energy policy in Spain from 2002 to 2017 and calculates its cost-effectiveness in terms of CO 2 emission reductions in the production of electricity. Our conclusions indicate that although the phasing out of Feed-in Tariffs reduced the regulatory costs, it also limited renewable participation in the electricity market, leading to an increased electricity price and higher emissions. According to our results, the joint effect of (i) the value of avoided emissions due to renewable energy participation and (ii) the merit order effect was able to compensate for the regulatory costs (subsidies) up until 2010, while the sign of the net effect was reversed from 2011 to 2017. Finally, we find that the economic implications of emission reductions are highly dependent on how the social cost of carbon is measured. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agriculture and forestry activities are one of the many sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, but they are also sources of low-cost opportunities to mitigate these emissions compared to other economic sectors. This paper provides a first estimate of the potential for mitigation in the whole Spanish agriculture. A set of mitigation measures are selected for their cost-effectiveness and abatement potential and an efficient mix of these measures is identified with reference to a social cost of carbon of 40 €/tCO 2 e. This mix of measures includes adjusting crop fertilization and managing forests for carbon sequestration. Results indicate that by using the efficient mix of mitigation measures the annual abatement potential could reach 10 million tCO 2 e, which represents 28% of current agricultural emissions in Spain. This potential could further increase if the social cost of carbon rises covering the costs of applying manure to crops. Results indicate also that economic instruments such as input and emission taxes could be only ancillary measures to address mitigation in agriculture. These findings can be used to support the mitigation efforts in Spain and guide policymakers in the design of country-level mitigation strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wine is the main economic resource in the 'Area of Jerez', located in the south of Spain. It is one of the most important wine tourism destinations in the world. However, its sustainable production process, so strongly influenced by climatic conditions, can be clearly affected by the phenomenon of global warming. The ageing process of "Sherry wine" takes place in buildings known as 'Cathedral warehouses', an example of Nearly-Zero Energy Buildings (NZEBs). For centuries, they have been used to provide specific ecological conditions for biological ageing without any type of mechanical heating/cooling system. The purpose of this paper is to assess the impact of climate change on this production model. For this, the annual thermal behavior of a representative winery was monitored during several years. The first energy simulation model of this type of buildings was developed and validated (daily R2 = 99%; hourly R2 = 97%). Finally, the model was simulated by modifying the outdoor climatic conditions (9 years training data sets) for a climate change scenario, applying the 'morphing' method for the transformation of the weather data. The results show that, by the middle of this century, the average outdoor temperature will increase by 2.3 °C (in summer up to 3.6 °C). As a consequence, the temperature in the ageing zone would exceed the comfort limit for 19% of the year, (up to 34% in hot years). For 2080, the prediction is even worse (average value of 27%). As a result, the microorganisms responsible for this unique process could not maintain their activity. This fact will force the sector to face a harsh reconversion through the adoption of new mechanisms and strategies, which endangers the economic sustainability of an entire region dedicated to this practice. Beyond the specific case, the work highlights the need to evaluate the future behavior of NZEBs through simulation. [Display omitted] • Assess the impact of climate change in a Near Zero Energy Building. • "Cathedral warehouses" will lose their usefulness by the middle of this century. • Comfort limits will be exceeded 19% of the year, interrupting biological ageing. • The economic sustainability of an entire region would be endangered. • The need to evaluate the future behavior of Near Zero Energy Building is highlighted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conventional Mediterranean vineyards from the Montes de Málaga (Axarquía region, Spain) are characterized by high average temperatures, extreme rainfall events during autumn and winter, elevated stoniness and steep slopes (20–50°). Traditionally, several problems of high soil loss, rill and ephemeral gully generation, and elevated runoff are observed by farmers, which are increasing land degradation processes and a decrease of the productivity. According to this, the main aims of this paper were: i) to quantify the initial soil loss, surface flow and infiltration processes; ii) to characterize and describe the hydrological and geomorphological dynamics; iii) to detect the key factors, which control the soil erosion processes. For this purpose, a combined methodology was applied, using soil analysis, a small portable rainfall simulator and a Guelph permeameter on one experimental plot cultivated with vineyards with steep slopes. Results showed a high variability of soil erosion and permeability processes. Soil analysis showed an elevated concentration of silt particles and stoniness, with higher contents of sand particles between 0 and 5 cm, and clays from 5 cm. With a Guelph permeameter, high average of permeability and saturated hydraulic conductivity with elevated standard deviation were observed. Furthermore, an increase of these parameters from the upper to the foot slope was registered. By using rainfall simulations, on the upper and the foot slope positions the highest runoff coefficient and soil loss were registered. The most elevated peak of sediment concentration was obtained on the middle slope. In general, high infiltration coefficients between 66.5 and 100% were observed. In conclusion it was observed that the activation of the soil erosion processes was due to the distribution of the surface soil components (high roughness, several cracks and high stoniness and silt content), the steep slopes and the impact of the soil traditional tillage practices. These Mediterranean hillslope vineyards registered a mixed Hortonian-Hewlettian model, which combines surface and sub-surface flow conditioned by the micro-topographical changes and its saturation degree. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary Policymakers in arid and semiarid basins face hard choices on water policies needed for adaptation to climate change. Hydro-economic modeling is a state-of-the art approach that can be used to guide the design and implementation of these policies in basins. A major gap in developments of hydro-economic modeling to date has been the weak integration of physically-based representations of water sources and uses such as the interaction between ground and surface water resources, to inform complex basin scale policy choices. This paper presents an integrated hydro-economic modeling framework to address this gap with application to an important and complex river basin in Spain, the Jucar basin, for the assessment of a range of climate change scenarios and policy choices. Results indicate that in absence of adequate policies protecting water resources and natural ecosystems, water users will strategically deplete reservoirs, aquifers and river flows for short-term adaptation to climate change, disregarding the impacts on the environment and future human activities. These impacts can be addressed by implementing sustainable management policies. However, these policies could have disproportionate costs for some stakeholders groups, and their opposition may undermine attempts at sustainable policy. These tradeoffs among water policy choices are important guides to the design of policies aimed at basin-wide adaptation to climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper assesses the feasibility and robustness of an index-based insurance scheme against hydrological droughts under climate change. To this end, we develop a grand ensemble that samples both modeling and scenario uncertainty in the estimation of the insurance risk premium, so to reveal potential unfavorable surprises and minimize regret in the design of the proposed insurance scheme. The grand ensemble combines four microeconomic models and seven GAMLSS models, which are run for three alternative climate change scenarios: stationary climate/no climate change, RCP 2.6, and RCP 8.5. Methods are illustrated with an application to the Cega River Sub-basin (CRS) in central Spain. Results indicate that for a conventional deductible of 30%, the proposed index-based insurance scheme would be actuarially feasible and affordable under all models for the stationary climate scenario (i.e., robust). For climate change scenarios RCP 2.6 and 8.5 and a 30% deductible, the suggested index-based insurance would be actuarially feasible under most models, albeit some outliers point towards potential unfavorable surprises. Lower deductibles decrease feasibility, particularly for deductibles <10%. • For a deductible of 30% and stationary climate, the proposed index-based insurance is actuarially feasible under all models. • Under climate change (RCPs 2.6, 8.5), the insurance is feasible for all deductibles and the median model (except PMAUP WGP). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper presents the first compilation of information on the spatial distribution of scleractinian cold-water corals in the Gulf of Cádiz based on literature research and own observations (video footage, sediment samples). Scleractinian cold-water corals are widely distributed along the Spanish and Moroccan margins in the Gulf of Cádiz, where they are mainly associated with mud volcanoes, diapiric ridges, steep fault escarpments, and coral mounds. Dendrophyllia cornigera, Dendrophyllia alternata, Eguchipsammia cornucopia, Madrepora oculata and Lophelia pertusa are the most abundant reef-forming species. Today, they are almost solely present as isolated patches of fossil coral and coral rubble. The absence of living scleractinian corals is likely related to a reduced food supply caused by low productivity and diminished tidal effects. In contrast, during the past 48kyr scleractinian corals were abundant in the Gulf of Cádiz, although their occurrence demonstrates no relationship with main climatic or oceanographic changes. Nevertheless, there exists a conspicuous relationship when the main species are considered separately. Dendrophylliids are associated with periods of relatively stable and warm conditions. The occurrence of L. pertusa mainly clusters within the last glacial when bottom current strength in the Gulf of Cádiz was enhanced and long-term stable conditions existed in terms of temperature. Madrepora oculata shows a higher tolerance to abrupt environmental changes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper discusses the extinction pattern of the Pliensbachian-Toarcian boundary (PTB) ostracod assemblages at the Almonacid de la Cuba section (Cordillera Ibérica, NE Spain), which has been recently proposed as auxiliary boundary stratotype for the PTB. The ostracod record shows that the main Early Jurassic ostracod extinction event occurred not at the end of the Pliensbachian, but near the top of the Mirabile ammonite Subzone, Tenuicostatum ammonite Zone (Early Toarcian). On the basis of the evaluation of PTB ostracod record, a new causal explanation for the Early Toarcian ostracod turnover is proposed. This paper suggests that a reorganization of surface and deep-water circulations caused by the opening of the Hispanic Corridor could have generated a mild cooling episode, finally affecting the survival of healdioid ostracods. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Energy performance certificate databases are a key tool for mapping national building stock and thus fostering greater overall energy efficiency. This paper presents an insight into the energy performance of residential and tertiary sector buildings in Spain, through an analysis of the first 129,635 energy performance certificates issued for existing buildings, collected by the Catalan Institute of Energy. Most of the residential buildings or building units that were studied were “E” class (53.6%). Single-family houses were found to use more energy on average (248.0 kWh p /m 2 ) than individual dwellings (183.2 kWh p /m 2 ). Tertiary sector buildings were found to have slightly better energy performance (26.4% of buildings were rated “D class”), with an average energy consumption of 317.8 kWh p /m 2 . Modern buildings consume less energy, as they must meet the higher energy performance requirements stated in thermal building regulations. Residential buildings or building units located in hotter climate zones consume slightly less energy than those located in colder zones, mainly because heating accounts for a high percentage of overall energy expenditure (70–75% in residential buildings). A significant proportion of the energy consumed in tertiary sector buildings is for lighting (37.2%). This research defines the current energy consumption baseline of existing buildings in Spain. The results can help to prioritize energy conservation efforts according to building type, construction period, climate zone and specific end-uses. They may also help public authorities to plan future energy policies, and construction practitioners to identify market segments and business strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pleistocene fluvial incision acceleration resulting in narrow and deeply entrenched valleys has been widely described and is generally attributed to uplift rate increase or greater climatic severity. In this paper, the long-term downcutting pattern of the Upper Ebro River and driving mechanisms are assessed, and we reconstruct the valley incision recorded by an outstanding sequence of 22 river terraces. Dating of 8 fluvial levels by means of the ESR, TCN, and OSL techniques, spanning the last 1.2 Ma, reveals a long-term incision deceleration pattern. The estimated age-incision model indicates a decrease in the incision rates, showing a long-term deceleration during the final Early Pleistocene (from 0.42 to 0.18 m/ka), and a tendency towards a steady state or base level stabilization from the Middle Pleistocene (0.15–0.03 m/ka) to the Late Pleistocene (0.03 m/ka). This incision pattern does not support climate change as a long-term incision-acceleration driver by itself, demonstrating the need for base level lowering effects to have operated. Upper Ebro deceleration incision is explained by the headward attenuation of the incision wave induced by the opening of the Ebro Cenozoic Basin in a geodynamic context characterized by an absence of significant uplift over the last million years. This trend could have changed the aggressor-victim roles of the rivers involved in fluvial captures at the drainage divide. The documented incision deceleration pattern differs from that reported for other valleys in the Iberian Peninsula, suggesting that the degree of maturity of the fluvial systems depends on their relative position with respect to the capture point, in addition to tectonic and lithostructural factors. In the Late Pleistocene-Holocene, a short-lived incision rate increase is recorded, corresponding to the last terrace dissection phase, during the transition from the last glacial MIS 2 to the interglacial MIS 1. • Incision acceleration is widely reported during Pleistocene valley entrenchment. • However, the Upper Ebro valley contains a complex sequence of fluvial terraces • which were dated within the last 1.2 Ma using ESR, TCN and OSL techniques • and indicate an incision deceleration pattern. • This suggests that the river incision is tending to a steady state. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trying to decipher how paleoseismic activity has influenced the altitudinal disposition of interglacial deposits is one of the main challenges to be confronted before quantifying relative sea-level changes between consecutive highstands. At the same time, identifying paleoseismic features in an area with low instrumental seismic activity can complement the seismic record, thereby contributing to better seismic hazard knowledge. In this regard, Cope Basin (SE Spain) meets all the requirements necessary for these kinds of analysis, firstly on account of its excellent outcrop conditions and secondly, because its sea level record is undoubtedly conditioned by both factors: climatically driven changes and local and regional seismotectonics. The morpho-sedimentary sequence presented in this paper provides evidence from three different highstands: two littoral sedimentary units separated by terrestrial deposits and affected by liquefaction (paleoseismic activity), and a younger paleo-cliff and its associated wave-cut platform carved into those sedimentary units. This wave-cut platform now tilted and folded, reaches heights ranging from 0 to +8 m, which has been interpreted as a consequence of cosesimic effect. The age of this wave-cut platform (Last Interglacial or Holocene) supports uplift rate estimations of from 0.016 to 0.15 mm/yr since the Last Interglacial/Holocene. Active deformation observed on Pleistocene-Holocene sea-level geomarkers can not only furnish useful information about seismic activity within the major structure of the Aguilas Arc, but also offer new insight into the Cope Basin's geodynamic model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper assesses the temporal variations of surface ozone concentrations during the period 2001–2010 in 3 regions of Spain with different geographical and socioeconomic features (northern coastland, central inland and northeast inland), as well as its link with atmospheric circulation. Specifically, daily surface atmospheric patterns over the aforementioned regions are characterized using NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data and an objective classification scheme in order to study the relationship between synoptic weather types and daily ozone levels. The results show that tropospheric ozone concentration has a tendency towards an increase during the study period, both during daytime and nighttime. Moreover, in general, this upward trend is seen throughout all of the seasons. The observed trends are in line with a reported decrease of NO X emissions and increase in surface solar radiation during the 2000s in Spain. On the other hand, interestingly, median concentrations were statistically significantly lower in days with anticyclonic weather conditions than in the rest of meteorological situations, while days with a directional weather type showed higher median levels of ozone concentration, with maximum values in days with northern and eastern component. Due to the detrimental effect that ozone has on human health, the relationship between synoptic weather patterns and daily ozone levels shown in this work could potentially be used for implementing pollution level alert protocols depending on forecast weather types. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary An increase in water demands, exacerbated by climate change and the tightening of environmental requirements, leads to a reduction in available water resources for economic uses. This situation poses challenges for water resource planning and management. Water accounting has emerged as an appropriate tool to improve transparency and control in water management. There are multiple water accounting approaches, but they generally involve a very exhaustive list of accounted concepts. According to our findings in this research, one of the best water accounting methodologies is the Australian Water Accounting Standard. However, its implementation for integrated water resource planning and management purposes calls into questioning the amount of information and level of detail necessary for the users of water accounts. In this paper, we present a different method of applying the Australian Water Accounting Standard in relation to water resource management, which improves its utility. In order to compare the original approach and that proposed here, we present and discuss an application to the Júcar Water Resource System, in eastern Spain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Water deficit indices based on the spatial relationship between surface temperature (Ts) and NDVI, known as triangle approaches, are widely used for drought monitoring. However, their application has been recently questioned when the main factor limiting evapotranspiration is energy. Even though water is the main control in dryland ecosystems, these can also undergo periods of energy and temperature limitation. In this paper we aimed to: (i) evaluate the TVDI (Temperature–Vegetation Dryness Index) to estimate water deficits (e.g. ratio between actual and potential evapotranspiration), and heat surface fluxes using MODIS data; and (ii) provide insights about the factors most affecting the accuracy of results. Factors considered included the type of climatic control on evapotranspiration, λE, (i.e. water-limited vs. energy-limited), the quality of Tair estimates, the heterogeneity of land cover types and climatic variables in the region, or the algorithm to extract hydrological boundaries from the images. The TVDI was compared with eddy covariance (EC) data from two shrublands with different climatic controls for λE in South Spain. Evaluations showed that it could be used to estimate the water deficit when water was the main limiting factor (R=0.81–0.88; Mean Average Error, MAE=0.16–0.17) but not in energy-limited situations (R<0.2; MAE=0.10–0.2). Spatial heterogeneity in climatic variables also had a different impact on accuracy depending on limiting factors. Relative humidity was significant at the water-limited site while solar irradiance and air temperature were more important at the energy-limited site. The skill of the TVDI to estimate surface fluxes at the water-limited site was confirmed for the dominant sensible heat flux, H (R 2 =0.93; Mean Absolute Percentage Error, MAPE=12.85%) but not for λE (R 2 =0.01, MAPE=115.22%) as λE fluxes at this site are just slightly above the error of the eddy covariance system. At the energy-limited site, λE (R 2 =0.74; MAPE=31.83%) and H estimates (R 2 =0.80; MAPE=26.85%) were better than those from the SEBAL (Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land) or the PML (Penman–Monteith–Leuning) models. However, the skill to predict surface fluxes in this case was due to the net radiation inputs and not by the TVDI input. Our analyses also suggest: (1) to apply the TVDI excluding energy-limited sites/periods based on climatic knowledge of limiting factors on λE; (2) the best conditions for TVDI performance correspond to the situation when the controlling factors are less limiting, e.g. during the growing season (higher SWC and lower VPD); and (3) to account better for the role of vegetation controls on transpiration. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Understanding soil dynamics is essential for making appropriate land management decisions, as soils can affect the carbon content from the atmosphere, emitting large quantities of CO2 or storing carbon. This property is essential for climate change mitigation strategies as agriculture and forestry soil management can affect the carbon cycle. The Mediterranean dehesa (Mediterranean grassland ecosystem with scattered oak trees — grazing system with Quercus ilex spp. ballota) is a silvopastoral system that integrates forestry, agricultural and livestock practices. The dehesa is characterized by the preservation of forest oaks that provide environmental services including carbon capture and storage. This paper shows the relationships between soil properties and soil organic carbon (SOC) in two soil types: Cambisols (CM) and Leptosols (LP), with two management systems: organic farming (OF) for 20years and conventional tillage (CT) in a Mediterranean dehesa of southern Spain without cropping. An analysis of 85 soil profiles was performed in 2009 in Los Pedroches Valley (Cordoba, southern Spain). The SOC stock (SOC-S) was greater in CM (75.64Mgha−1) than in LP (44.01Mgha−1). Physical parameters were the main variables affecting soil development. SOC-S was very similar in OF and CT (CM [74.90Mgha−1-CT; 76.39Mgha−1-OF] and LP [44.77Mgha−1-CT; 43.25Mgha−1-OF]). Data analysis showed that management practices had little effect on SOC storage in the study zone. Significant differences between soil types and management practices were found in SOC content for different horizons. The stratification ratio was >2 in both soils types (CM and LP) and management systems (OF and CT). These results indicate that the soil is of high quality, and that management practices have little influence on SOC-S in Los Pedroches Valley. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The climatic and anthropogenic control on Holocene sediment dynamics was not well constrained for the Western Mediterranean basin. The paucity of high resolution palaeoenvironmental records long hampered a detailed understanding of the human impact on erosion rates. This paper analyses Holocene sediment dynamics in the context of regional climatic conditions, land cover and human occupation based on an extended compilation of recently published high-resolution paleoenvironmental proxy data from both terrestrial and marine environments. The palaeoenvironmental reconstruction identified four main aridification episodes (A) at 5600–4700 (A4), 4100–3400 (A3), 2800–2500 (A2), and 1900–1300/1200 (A1) cal. BP. Most of the severe aridification phases were climatically induced, not human-driven and well correlated with a large dataset of paleoenvironmental records from the Western Mediterranean Basin and North Atlantic Ocean. The phases of enhanced aridity are generally associated with enhanced sediment dynamics, independent of the intensity and type of human occupation. In contrast, wet climatic conditions are found to be associated with both high and low sediment dynamics dependent on the human impact on the environment. The mid-late Phoenician, Phoenician II/Republican Rome civilizations and the Christian Reconquest are all associated with high human impact on the environment, and high erosion rates are reported for the Vera basin and NE Spain despite the improved hydrological conditions. Human occupation is not necessarily associated with geomorphic instability, as shown by the Post Argaric, Omeya and Nazarene periods that are characterized by low erosion rates and geomorphic stability. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In recent years climate change has become a multidisciplinary research topic that addresses the challenges facing transport infrastructure planning, construction and operation. The study of the adaptation of transport systems to new environmental conditions is often based on the interrelated concepts of resilience, vulnerability and criticality. In this paper we assess the criticality of sections of Spain's inland transport network under the effects of changing climate scenarios obtained from a specific climate projection (using the time periods 2010–2020 and 2045–2055). The functionality of the transport system is characterised here in terms of territorial accessibility. The results identify and locate the most critical stretches of the Spanish transport network. In general terms, the most relevant sections in regard to accessibility will not be exposed to the greatest changes in climate variables. Up to 2.8% of the roads and 5.9% of the railways that contribute most significantly to the territorial accessibility of the transport system will undergo the greatest variations between climate scenarios. This paper contributes to this field of research by developing a screening tool that represents a valuable instrument for the infrastructure decision-making process at the strategic level. Action areas for proactive adaptation measures can be identified in order to reduce impacts and costs, while prioritising the maintenance or reconstruction of the most critical stretches in the case of a future climate event. • We assess criticality of sections of transport network under changing climate scenarios. • We combine accessibility of the transport network with exposure to changes in climate. • Most valuable accessibility sections not be exposed to the greatest climate changes. • We locate the most critical transport infrastructure sections in Spain. • We provide a useful screening tool to identify priority action areas for mitigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The specific contribution of GUAs to the SDGs has been analysed. • Green urban areas contribute directly to the achievement of SDG11, SDG15 and SDG13. • Equity in sustainable development has been assessed at a sub-neighbourhood level. • Equity requires an adequate location, size, quantity and quality of GUA. The Agenda for Sustainable Development 2030 of United Nations is made up of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that humanity will have to meet by 2030. In achieving the SDGs, green urban areas (GUA) play a fundamental role at the local level as they provide recreational and bioclimatic regulatory functions and act as a carbon sink, as well. Specifically, the GUAs contribute directly to three SDGs: SDG 11 Sustainable cities and communities, SDG 13 Climate Action and SDG 15 Life on land. This paper evaluates direct contribution of GUA to this SDGs with high spatial resolution in the case study of the city of Valencia (Spain). The evaluation carried out has made it possible to make a diagnosis of the quantity and accessibility of GUA at sub-neighbourhood level. The results for SDG 11 show that only 9.23% of the population do not have desirable access to GUA and 2.73% live in areas without easy walking distance access to GUA. On the other hand, the evaluation of SDG 15 shows that each inhabitant has at their disposal 10 m2 of GUA, below the average of cities of more than 250,000 inhabitants in Spain. The high spatial resolution of the evaluation has also made it possible to identify the city areas with the worst access to GUA and the least amount of GUA per inhabitant. In consequence, the results allow determining zones with high potential to improve. Additionally, the quantification of the CO 2 fixed by the GUA carried out for the evaluation of SDG 13, shows that the fixed carbon is equivalent to 0.04% of total gross GHG emissions of the city and is 36% higher than the total GHG emissions of the annual fuel consumption of the total fleet in the city. Finally, the monitoring of the indicators applied allows evaluating the evolution of the GUA to improve the sustainable development of the city. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper aims at providing scientific evidence of the existence of a high potential of solar energy, not only for the application of flat photovoltaic installations, but also for tracking systems that use concentration, which promise to contribute towards lowering the cost of photovoltaics to the €1/Wp value. It reports results of solar radiation data gathered in Malta (latitude 36°), which represents a central Mediterranean location and compare it to the Region of Valladolid (latitude 42°), within continental Spain to the west of the Mediterranean region. The availability of direct normal radiation is quite good for both sites and could support the building of concentrated systems in the region. A 5-year cumulative annual global solar radiation on a horizontal surface was found to be 1693 and 1841 kWh/m²/day for Valladolid (Spain) and Marsaxlokk (Malta), respectively. Studies showed that Marsaxlokk had a greater normal direct solar potential than Valladolid, but with lower annual variance. Daily analyses showed that Marsaxlokk had more sunny days, similar frequency of partly cloudy days and much lower overcast days than Valladolid. Seasonal analysis showed that Valladolid had less sunshine in autumn and winter but similar availability as Marsaxlokk in spring and summer. A number of correlations between the Clearness Index and the Diffuse Fraction were also made. Such correlations are very useful in estimating past missing data and forecasting future solar availability. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper describes two different GIS models – one stationary (GeoImpress) and the other non-stationary (Patrical) – that assess water quantity and quality in the Júcar River Basin District, a large river basin district (43,000km2) located in Spain. It aims to analyze the status of surface water (SW) and groundwater (GW) bodies in relation to the European Water Framework Directive (WFD) and to support measures to achieve the WFD objectives. The non-stationary model is used for quantitative analysis of water resources, including long-term water resource assessment; estimation of available GW resources; and evaluation of climate change impact on water resources. The main results obtained are the following: recent water resources have been reduced by approximately 18% compared to the reference period 1961–1990; the GW environmental volume required to accomplish the WFD objectives is approximately 30% of the GW annual resources; and the climate change impact on water resources for the short-term (2010–2040), based on a dynamic downscaling A1B scenario, implies a reduction in water resources by approximately 19% compared to 1990–2000 and a reduction of approximately 40–50% for the long-term (2070–2100), based on dynamic downscaling A2 and B2 scenarios. The model also assesses the impact of various fertilizer application scenarios on the status of future GW quality (nitrate) and if these future statuses will meet the WFD requirements. The stationary model generates data on the actual and future chemical status of SW bodies in the river basin according to the modeled scenarios and reflects the implementation of different types of measures to accomplish the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive and the WFD. Finally, the selection and prioritization of additional measures to accomplish the WFD are based on cost-effectiveness analysis. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: During the Magdalenian, roughly 20–13 ka cal BP, intensive human occupation of the El Mirón cave coincided with Oldest Dryas and the climate amelioration of Bölling-Allerod (Pleniglacial GS-2a; interstadials GI-1e, 1d, 1c, 1b, 1a). The evolution of small mammal assemblages throughout the stratigraphic sequence displays a pattern similar to those of pollen, geological, and other studies elsewhere in the Cantabrian region. During the Magdalenian there was a climatic recovery, indicated by the first record in the stratigraphic sequence of small mammals living in forested habitats, such as dormice. At the end of the Magdalenian, there was an important diminishment of species of small mammal, especially those living in meadow habitats, at the beginning of the Younger Dryas cold period. Surprisingly, the small mammals living in forest habitats maintained or even further increased in numbers. Tardiglacial use of El Mirón cave coincided with several climate oscillations whose impact on hunting decisions is still debated. This environmental variability during the Late Glacial has been indicated by different proxy records (palynological, geological, etc.) throughout the Cantabrian Region. However, the exact timing and intensity of these changes is unclear due to the lack of continuous, rich archaeological sequences with many radiometric determinations. El Mirón Cave sequence fills this gap in the record, and this paper presents a detailed reconstruction of the development of biotopes around the site based on its micromammal assemblages. It shows an interesting trend of increasing forest-related species (notably dormice) during the Pleistocene–Holocene transition that was preceded by a significant peak of wooded biotopes towards the end of the Pleniglacial, during Heinrich event 1. This pattern can be correlated with the strategy of subsistence that was developed as shown by the macromammalian faunas in the search for any relationship that can shed light on the type of economy adopted by Magdalenian populations in terms of their reaction to resource availability. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Esquilleu cave (Cantabria, northern Spain) presents 30 Mousterian archaeological layers covering virtually the complete MIS 3 both in chronology and environmental. A number of environmental analyses (faunal, pollen, charcoal) allow the study of the different strategies for the procurement and management of resources available near the site and indicate the Neanderthals’ wide adaptability to the changing environment typical of this period. This paper also discusses the possibility of using bones as fuel either as a palliative for a presumed lack of wood resources in the environment or as a mere pattern of human behaviour. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Ruminant livestock systems emit CH4 and N2O to the atmosphere. Quantification of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in Spain is reported annually in the National Emission Inventory. The objective of this study was to update the annual CH4 and N2O emissions by dairy and beef cattle, and dairy ewes in the Basque Country of Northern Spain according to the recommendations of (Tier 2) using regional farm management data. A mathematical approach was used to assess uncertainties of estimated emission factors (EF). CH4 EF from enteric fermentation was 107kg CH4/hd/yr for dairy cattle with a milk yield of 7870kg milk/hd/yr. The corresponding values for beef cows and dairy ewes were 60 and 8.4kg CH4/hd/yr. Emission of CH4 from enteric fermentation accounted for 87% of total CH4 emissions in ruminant production, with dairy and beef cattle the main contributors. The regional contribution of beef cattle to enteric CH4 emissions has become important recently as many farmers have changed from dairy to beef cattle production. CH4 EF (Tier 2) from manure management was 33.2, 2.0 and 0.3kg CH4/hd/yr for dairy cattle, beef cattle and dairy ewes. From 2005, many small dairy cow farms (<20 livestock units) have closed and manure management has become mostly liquid slurry resulting in higher CH4 emissions. The EF of N2O from manure management was 1.0, 1.4 and 0.1kg N2O/hd/yr for dairy cattle, beef cattle and dairy ewes. EF values calculated from Tier 2 were higher than those from Tier 1, except for dairy cattle EF from enteric fermentation, since these animals are mainly fed high concentrate diets with high digestibility which result in lower enteric CH4 emissions/hd. By improving livestock characterization we obtained lower uncertainties for EF calculated as Tier 2 than for default values from Tier 1. Emissions from manure management had the largest uncertainty, and the uncertainty of N2O EF from manure management was higher than for enteric CH4 EF due to its high natural variability and poor knowledge of it. The animal category with the lowest uncertainty was dairy cattle, as more accurate data were available due to it largely being in intensified production systems. This paper is part of the special issue entitled: Greenhouse Gases in Animal Agriculture – Finding a Balance between Food and Emissions, Guest Edited by T.A. McAllister, Section Guest Editors: K.A. Beauchemin, X. Hao, S. McGinn and Editor for Animal Feed Science and Technology, P.H. Robinson. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Causes of the major mass extinction recorded during the Early Toarcian (Early Jurassic) are controversial. Many authors have concluded that the mass extinction is caused by the widespread oceanic anoxia derived from a postulated Early Toarcian Oceanic Anoxic Event (ETOAE), supposedly synchronous in all basins and global in extent. Another group of papers links the mass extinction with a major climate change that occurred synchronously with the mass extinction. The results of the study of five sections of the uppermost Pliensbachian and Lower–Middle Toarcian deposits, located in northern and central Spain are presented. Detailed ammonite-based biostratigraphy, coupled with stable isotope analysis of belemnite calcite and bulk carbonates, as well as total organic carbon (TOC) analyses have been performed in all sections. Records of the vertical distribution of mainly benthic fossils have been compiled in four of the studied sections. Results obtained in the Spanish outcrops have been compared and correlated with other European sections. The excellent mutual relation between the patterns of the Early Toarcian progressive warming and the concomitant progressive losses of species evidences a cause-and-effect relationship between the increase of temperature and the mass extinction. From an uppermost Pliensbachian cooling interval, warming started at the Lower Toarcian Tenuicostatum Zone. Increase of average seawater palaeotemperature is associated with a progressive and substantial drawdown in the number of species of nektonic, planktonic and benthic organisms, representing the extinction interval. A prominent increase in seawater temperature occurred around the Lower Toarcian Tenuicostatum–Serpentinum zonal boundary. Average temperatures at the Serpentinum Zone increased about 7°C, marking the extinction boundary. The high temperatures continued during the Middle Toarcian Bifrons Chronozone, representing the repopulation interval. The anoxia linked to the postulated ETOAE cannot be the responsible for the mass extinction, because it has been synchronously recorded in the oxygenated environments of many European and Northern African platforms. Deposition of laminated organic-rich black shale facies, above 5wt.% TOC indicating anoxic environments, was mostly confined geographically to the Western Europe Euxinic Basin, and mainly deposited after the extinction event, during the interval of faunal recovery. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The present paper analyses the evidence provided by three sites (Sima del Elefante, Gran Dolina, and Galería) located in the Trinchera del Ferrocarril of the Sierra de Atapuerca. These three sites are cave infillings that contain sediments deposited from approximately 1.2 Ma to 200 kyr. Pollen, herpetofauna, and small and large mammal remains are used as proxies to obtain a general picture of the environmental changes that occurred at the Sierra de Atapuerca throughout the one million-year period represented at these sites. Similarly, cultural changes are tracked analyzing the evidence of human behavior obtained from the study of several bone and lithic assemblages from these three sites. At least three periods with different cultural features, involving technology, subsistence and behavior, are determined from the available evidence. The first two periods correspond to the Mode 1 technology and Homo antecessor: the first is dated around 1.2 to 1.0 Ma and reflects opportunistic behavior both in technology and subsistence. The second period is around 800 kyr BP. Mode 1 technology is still maintained, but subsistence strategies include systematic hunting and the use of base camps. The third period is dated between 500ka and 200ka and corresponds to the Mode 2 technology and the acquisition of directional hunting and other organizational strategies by Homo heidelbergensis. A transition from Mode 2 to Mode 3 seems to appear at the end of this time-range, and may reflect the early phases of a fourth cultural change. With regard to the environment, our main conclusion is that there was an absence of extremely harsh conditions at Atapuerca throughout this time period. The presence of Mediterranean taxa was constant and the dominant landscape was a savannah-like open environment, probably with small forest patches. An alternation of Mediterranean and mesic species as the dominant component of the tree storey was induced by the climatic cycles, and steppes spread across the landscape during the drier periods. In any case, it is not possible to establish clear cut-off points separating entirely different environmental episodes. Our results show no evidence of any relationship between environmental change and cultural change at the Sierra de Atapuerca. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper reports on analysis of plant macrofossils in aeolian deposits exposed in El Asperillo cliff in the Province of Huelva. A significant find of a large number of macrofossils of Pinus (Pinus pinaster Ait. and Pinus nigra Arnold) makes a major contribution to our understanding of the role of Pine in the Upper Pleistocene landscapes of Iberia. P. pinaster Ait. and P. nigra Arnold, are meso-microthermic species and inhabited valleys excavated in aeolian sediments mainly deposited during OIS 4 and OIS 3 (based on OSL and radiocarbon ages). Their presence in these valleys during the last part of OIS4 and OIS 3 reflects a significant fall in temperature during certain periods of these isotopic stages and helps us better understand the response of coastal dynamics to climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: From February 2000 to December 2008 systematic measurements of CO2 ambient concentrations were taken using a MIR 9000 continuous infrared analyser in a rural area of the upper Spanish plateau. The wide database obtained has enabled us to quantify CO2 levels at the measuring site and describe daily and seasonal cycles as well as inter-annual variability. The daily cycle and seasonal variation were dominated by strong temperature inversions, TI, prevailing at the measuring site, up to 7.5°C per 100m, which largely contributed to trapping CO2 during night-time, particularly during the growing season. This paper presents the influence of TI on CO2 and describes the results using available TI values below 3°C as a filtering criterion addressed to minimise local disturbances. The filtered monthly means exhibited a seasonal variation characterised by a primary peak in May, a secondary weak peak in October and a minimum in July–August. Seasonal amplitude yielded 8.7ppm. Over the whole study period, the annual trend, estimated by means of a second order harmonic model applied to the monthly means (R 2 =95.6%), yielded a positive linear increase of 2.98 and a 0.64ppmyear−1 rise in the amplitude of the seasonal cycle. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The Guadalentín River, located in southeast Spain, is considered one of the most torrential rivers in Spain, as indicated by catastrophic events such as the 1879 flood that caused 777 fatalities in the Murcia region. In this paper, flood frequency and magnitude of the upper Guadalentín River were reconstructed using geomorphological evidence, combined with one-dimensional hydraulic modelling and supported by records from documentary sources at Lorca in the lower Guadalentín catchment. Palaeoflood studies were conducted along a 2.5-km reach located at the confluence of the Rambla Mayor (162km2) and Caramel River (210km2). These tributaries join at the entrance of a narrow bedrock canyon, carved in Cretaceous limestone, which is 15–30m wide and 40m deep. Six stratigraphic profiles were described, the thickest and most complete corresponding to flood benches deposited upstream of the canyon constriction. The stratigraphic and documentary records identify five main phases of increased flood frequency. Phase 1, based on sedimentary palaeoflood evidence alone, occurred at c. AD 950–1200 with at least ten floods with minimum discharge estimates of 15–580m3 s−1. Phases 2–5, identified through combined sedimentary and documentary evidence occurred at: (a) AD 1648–1672, with eight documentary floods and two palaeofloods exceeding 580–680m3 s−1 (most probably the AD 1651 and 1653 events); (b) AD 1769–1802, comprising seven documentary floods, of which at least two events (>250m3 s−1) are preserved in the sedimentary record; (c) AD 1830–1840, with four documentary floods, and at least two events recorded in the stratigraphy (760–1035m3 s−1); and finally (d) the AD 1877–1900 period that witnessed seven documentary floods, with three palaeofloods exceeding 880m3 s−1. The palaeoflood and historical flood information indicate an anomalous increase in the frequency of large magnitude floods between AD 1830 and 1900, which can be attributed to climatic variability accentuated by intensive deforestation and land use practices during the first decades of the nineteenth century. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: It has been suggested that the Recent zoogeography and diversification of the killifish Aphanius is a result of the palaeogeographic reorganisation of the Mediterranean area during the Neogene. However, little is known about the fossil distribution of killifishes in the Mediterranean, and literature data are scattered. This paper summarizes the data on the stratigraphic range and palaeoecology of the Aphanius and Aphanolebias species from three time intervals in the Miocene of southwestern Europe, the Paratethys, and the Aegean based on previously described otoliths and articulated skeletons, and newly collected otoliths from Spain. Moreover, the mollusc palaeocommunities that co-occur with the otoliths from Spain are considered. Our data indicate that species-diversity and zoogeography of fossil killifishes is closely linked to those palaeogeographic and climate conditions that affect the abundance of brackish and swamp habitats. The appearance of fossil Aphanolebias or Aphanius in continental deposits of Early and Middle Miocene age can be considered indicative of a warm palaeoclimate with seasonal or interannual aridity. The relatively wide geographic distribution of the Late Miocene Aphanius crassicaudus is strikingly different from the zoogeographic pattern exhibited by the Early and Middle Miocene Aphanius species, and probably resulted from (i) increased numbers of brackish and swamp habitats due to the Messinian event, and (ii) the closure of the deep seaway between the former island of Italy and the mainland to the north. We hypothesize that the wide geographic distribution of the present-day A. fasciatus in the Mediterranean Sea, as well as the limited zoogeography of A. iberus and A. baeticus along the Spanish coast, is a result of zoogeographic history of their ancestors in the Late Miocene. Moreover, the present-day ability of Aphanius to survive under extreme conditions probably represents a vestige of the broad ecological tolerance of the Miocene Aphanius species. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Quaternary-aged calcrete horizons are common weathering products in arid and semi-arid regions. It is, however, unclear how calcrete forming processes respond to the major oscillations in climate that occur over the Quaternary period. This paper presents a U-series-based calcrete age database from the Sorbas basin, southeast Spain. The study constructs an age frequency distribution of these ages which is consequently compared to a range of palaeoenvironmental records from the Mediterranean. The age distribution presented here suggests that the formation of pedogenic calcrete horizons in the Sorbas basin primarily occurs during ‘warm’ isotope stages (MIS 1 and 5), with very few calcrete ages occurring during cold glacial/stadial stages (MIS 2, 3 and 4). It is suggested that this is a function of the environments that existed during ‘warm’ isotope stages being more conducive to calcrete development than those that existed during cold climate episodes. In a semi-arid region such as the Sorbas basin it is likely that increased aridity during glacial stages, coupled with reduced vegetation and accelerated landscape instability, was crucial in reducing rates of calcrete formation. In a semi-arid region such as southeast Spain, calcrete formation during the Quaternary, therefore, oscillates with climate change but is primarily a “warm” episode phenomenon. It is suggested that further studies are required to see how calcrete genesis responds to environmental change in more humid parts of the Mediterranean. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The impact of late Upper Pleistocene climate change in the western Mediterranean region has been mainly documented through marine records. Archaeological and geomorphological continental records now available for the coast of Málaga complement these records for the second part of the last major glacial episode and the early stages of the Holocene. This paper provides an overview of the archaeological, chronological and palaeoenvironmental data from the end of the Middle Palaeolithic period to the Epipalaeolithic. Sequences from the two major sites, Nerja and Bajondillo, indicate a mosaic-type response of ecosystems to the rapidly shifting conditions of the Last Glacial episode. Terrestrial mammals, for example, show no major variations from present-day communities. Plant remains in contrast, demonstrates the existence of localised refuge areas for species that would not otherwise have survived in the more widely prevailing climatic conditions of the time, whereas remains of fish and, secondarily, birds demonstrate the existence of communities without any present-day analogues combining Mediterranean and Boreal (i.e., northern Atlantic) taxa. From an archaeological standpoint, the major cultural shift is the onset of marine fishing, beginning in the Solutrean. This coincided with the end of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) episode. The faunal record also testifies to the rising importance of marine resources more generally. Although the data have not been used systematically to test the validity of the Broad Spectrum Revolution (BSR) hypothesis, the hints for it in the area seem compelling from the start of the Solutrean onwards. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper aims to analyse the distribution and temporal evolution of convective precipitation in the Mediterranean region of Spain. To accomplish this goal, we used 148 sets of 5-min rainfall rate data from the 1989–2015 period. The selected regions were the Júcar Hydrographic Confederation (CHJ) and the Internal Basins of Catalonia (CIC), which cover most of the autonomous communities of Catalonia and the Valencian Community (east Spain). The average 5-min intensity threshold of 35 mm/h and the β parameter, defined as the ratio between convective precipitation versus total precipitation in any period, were used to characterise convective precipitation. Convective episodes were categorised as "very convective", "moderately convective", and "slightly convective" based on the β value. After quality control, the series of 129 stations were clustered into homogeneous precipitation zones that also include β as one of the variables of characterisation. The results show that convective precipitation can contribute to total annual precipitation by up to 16% on average, but it is generated by a very small percentage of convective events (between 3% and 6% across all the stations) in comparison with the total number of rainfall episodes. In this sense, moderately convective events are the most common, with a predominantly unimodal monthly distribution of β, with summer the most convective season. Trends show a significant increase in precipitation, convective precipitation, and convective episodes in the CHJ. On the other hand, a positive trend of convective events is predominant in the CIC region, despite an overall precipitation decrease in the analysed period. These results are relevant given that extreme daily rainfall does not show a positive or significant trend, and they are in line with the impact of climate change on increased atmospheric instability and water vapour in the atmosphere. They highlight the need to work with sub-daily precipitation series in the case of the Mediterranean, which is mainly affected by flash floods. • The contribution of convective precipitation in the East of Spain exceeds 10% annually and can reach 100% in late summer. • Convective precipitation is caused by less than 5% of annual rain episodes that are associated to heavy rains. • Orography (height, orientation, and distance to the sea) plays the major role in triggering convective precipitation. • There is a predominant increase of convective precipitation resulting from a strengthening of thermodynamic conditions. • SST has increased 0,3ºC more than air temperature in the Mediterranean region that results in increasing potential instability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global warming and air quality are headline environmental issues of our time and policy must preempt negative international effects with forward-looking strategies. As part of the revision of the European National Emission Ceilings Directive, atmospheric emission projections for European Union countries are being calculated. These projections are useful to drive European air quality analyses and to support wide-scale decision-making. However, when evaluating specific policies and measures at sectoral level, a more detailed approach is needed. This paper presents an original methodology to evaluate emission projections. Emission projections are calculated for each emitting activity that has emissions under three scenarios: without measures (business as usual), with measures (baseline) and with additional measures (target). The methodology developed allows the estimation of highly disaggregated multi-pollutant, consistent emissions for a whole country or region. In order to assure consistency with past emissions included in atmospheric emission inventories and coherence among the individual activities, the consistent emission projection (CEP) model incorporates harmonization and integration criteria as well as quality assurance/quality check (QA/QC) procedures. This study includes a sensitivity analysis as a first approach to uncertainty evaluation. The aim of the model presented in this contribution is to support decision-making process through the assessment of future emission scenarios taking into account the effect of different detailed technical and non-technical measures and it may also constitute the basis for air quality modelling. The system is designed to produce the information and formats related to international reporting requirements and it allows performing a comparison of national results with lower resolution models such as RAINS/GAINS. The methodology has been successfully applied and tested to evaluate Spanish emission projections up to 2020 for 26 pollutants but the methodology could be adopted for any particular region for different purposes, especially for European countries. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper reports the results of the analysis of annual mean temperature and precipitation series from 171 meteorological stations distributed over Castile and Leon [Castilla y León in Spanish] in Spain on monthly, seasonal and annual time-scales for a 37-year study period (1961–1997). Various statistical tools were used to detect and characterize significant changes in these series. The magnitude of the trends was derived from the slopes of the regression lines using the least squares method, and the statistical significance was determined by means of nonparametric tests. Positive trends of about 0.33 °C in the annual mean temperature were found for the whole period. Mean temperatures increased in spring and winter, the winter trend being statistically significant. The months of December and March also showed significant trends. Decreases in rainfall were found for three seasons (winter, spring and autumn), with statistically significant trends in March. Summer precipitation showed slight increases over the 37-year period. On this basis, the authors consider that the increase in summer precipitation and the decrease in the range of average temperatures between the warmest and the coldest months of the year (continentality), point towards a trend to a more oceanic climate in Castile and Leon. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Problems of sustainability of water supply in tourist resorts are becoming an increasingly common and important issue in applied geography and environmental management. This paper examines the relationships between tourism and water supply on the Mediterranean island of Mallorca, discussing both the scale of the problem and recent measures to find a solution, particularly the proposed Hydrological Plan for the Balearic Islands (published in 1998/9). Since Mallorca lies in an area likely to be seriously affected by future climate change, its potential effects are discussed and evaluated. One of the most critical problems relates to the coarse spatial resolution of general circulation models for predicting precipitation in an area where precipitation regimes grade steeply from semi-arid to humid temperate. However, it is likely that a continuation of the marked inter-annual and decadal-scale variability in precipitation seen during the recent past probably poses a greater threat to Mallorca’s water supply than the more gradual, progressive change typically predicted to accompany future global warming. Similarly, continued over-exploitation of coastal aquifers will be more critical to water quality issues than the direct impacts of any future sea level rise, although the latter would undoubtedly exacerbate these effects. The conclusion discusses the controversial new ecotasa (‘ecotax’), due to be imposed on Mallorca’s tourist industry in 2002, which is likely to represent only a partial solution to the long-term water supply problem. As the physical, cultural and economic environments of Mallorca are typical of much of the Mediterranean region, the implications of this issue extend well beyond the island’s shores. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The Late Upper Palaeolithic of Europe, particularly the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM: 26-19 kyr cal BP), was a time of dramatic climatic changes. Fauna, and the humans that preyed on them, were forced to adapt their behaviours in response to climate changes to survive. The Cantabrian Region of northern Spain was continuously inhabited during this period when many other areas of Europe were inhospitable. The site of Las Caldas (Asturias) was repeatedly occupied by hunter-gatherers during the Solutrean (26.1–20.3 kyr cal BP) and Magdalenian (18.5–14.3 kyr cal BP). This paper uses δ13C and δ15N stable isotope analysis of red deer (Cervus elaphus) and Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica) remains to reconstruct past environments, ungulate niches and habitats, and to understand how this impacted on their availability as a prey source. Results show that during the Solutrean, cold and potentially wet LGM conditions were experienced and ibex lived in lower altitudes, likely due to reduced vegetation, and even small glaciers on the higher mountain slopes. Improved environmental conditions in the Magdalenian allowed ibex to live in their preferred habitat of higher altitudes. Ameliorated Late Glacial conditions correspond with changing economic hunting strategies at the site. Humans exploited wider ecological zones, over larger distances, which coincides with population growth, and greater connectivity across the Cantabrian region. This research highlights the importance of characterising the complex interactions between humans, animals and environments during the Late Pleistocene and how they responded to rapidly changing environmental conditions. • Bone collagen δ13C and δ15N values used to reconstruct environments and faunal niches between 26 and 14 kyr cal BP in N. Spain. • Harsh Solutrean conditions affected ibex habitats, and they moved to lower altitudes. • Improved Magdalenian conditions coincided with exploitation of wider ecological zones. • Increased Magdalenian human populations pressured resources, affecting subsistence strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Circular Economy (CE) model has recently gained a lot of attention as an effective way to cope with the urgent issues related to Climate Change and sustainability. The European Union (EU) has launched a series of reports, plans and activities known as the Circular Economy package which main goal is to expand the CE model throughout Europe, with large companies leading the initiative. This paper aims at assessing their engagement with the CE model, and if their actual understanding, practice and reporting of CE corresponds to the standards and principles promoted by the EU CE Action Plan. The research does also analyse if large companies' reporting in terms of CE can be assimilated to their environmental sustainability reporting or if they consider it a different topic, with different drivers. The reports of the largest companies in Spain (IBEX35) were studied in full detail as well as their environmental scores (ESG) from DataStream database, and activity sector. Results show interesting implications highlighting how companies' perception over CE, as reported, differs from the EU CE Action Plan approach and from the environmental sustainability framework, especially when taking into account the type of activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes a post-processing tool included in the globally used SWAT model for desktop assessment of environmental flows. The tool uses daily flow data from SWAT outputs and can apply different methodologies based on percentiles or moving averages to assess environmental flows. This tool, included in the visualization section of the SWAT model, is open source and can therefore be readily expanded to include additional methodologies. The features and capabilities of this tool are demonstrated through an application to the Eo River basin in the northwest of Spain. The impact of climate change on environmental flows was analyzed, obtaining reductions in environmental flows significantly greater than those of average flows mainly as a result of the increase in the variability of the daily flow series. This tool can help policymakers and scientists with rapid preliminary assessment of environmental flows. • A new tool is introduced to facilitate the calculation of environmental flows from SWAT + outputs. • Hydrological methods based on moving averages and percentiles are easily calculated. • The tool is tested in a 700 km2 river basin in the Eo river basin (NW Spain). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By using an environmentally extended multi-regional input-output model, this paper analyses the Spanish households' carbon footprint for the 2008–2017 period considering the municipality size as well as the urban or rural residential zone where families live. Results show that, on a per capita basis, inhabitants of medium-large municipalities emit fewer carbon emissions than those settled in small ones (between 0.34 and 0.54 tCO 2 /cap depending on the year studied). This carbon unbalance is mainly explained by the higher direct carbon footprints of dwellers who reside in small municipalities and, in special, in rural zones. Furthermore, applying inequality measures through a consumption-based carbon footprint Gini coefficient, we show that both income and CO 2 emissions inequality are lower in small municipalities. In the light of the findings, in Spain, the application of a carbon pricing on direct and indirect carbon footprints will be regressive, disproportionally affecting people of small municipalities and rural areas. Accordingly, household carbon inequalities must be contemplated to avoid poorly designed climate change mitigation policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reviews the past distribution of Aleppo pine woodlands in the Ebro Basin, Northeastern Iberia, from the Mesolithic to Modern times based on wood charcoal data. The aim is to detail the chronological timing and the drivers explaining the long-term presence of Aleppo pine woodlands and associated thermophilous flora. The available charcoal data support the early spread of Pinus halepensis during the Mesolithic (ca. 9000 cal BP) accompanied by Mediterranean trees and shrubs like Quercus sp. evergreen, Juniperus sp., Arbutus unedo, Pistacia lentiscus, Rhamnus/Phillyrea , Cistaceae, and Rosmarinus officinalis , as a local response to global climate change in the Early Holocene. During the arrival and the propagation of the Neolithic culture (ca. 7500–5500 cal BP), anthracological records, as well as regional palynological sequences, demonstrate the progressive replacement of an conifer-dominated open parkland by both Quercus sp. deciduous and evergreen woodlands in response to the Middle Holocene rise in temperature and humidity. This evidence, however, converges with the general idea that the presence and the spread of Pinus halepensis and associated scrubland have usually been attributed to the onset of landscape anthropization. The frequency of xero-thermophilous open scrubland and the use of Aleppo pine for fuel and woodcrafting progressively increased during the Bronze and Iron Ages, and especially in Ibero-Roman and Medieval/Islamic times, when the vegetation landscape in the Middle Ebro Basin was largely deforested as a consequence of increasing demographic pressure, grazing and the establishment of proto-urban centers. • We review the past distribution of Pinus halepensis in the Ebro Basin (NE Iberia) based on anthracological records. • Wood charcoal data support the early spread of Pinus halepensis during the Mesolithic. • The xero-thermophilous open scrubland and the use of Pinus halepensis as woodcrafting is attested during Metal Ages and historic times. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The wine sector is highly vulnerable to climate change, especially due to the dependence of vine growing on climatic and environmental conditions. For this reason, adaptation and mitigation measures are important for the future of the wine industry. However, the process of adopting these measures by companies is not sufficiently known. The objective of this paper is to study the action against climate change by the wine sector in Spain, which has 13% of the world's vineyard area. Data capture was carried out through a survey of wineries. First, a questionnaire was designed and validated. This process included semi-structured and in-depth interviews with several winery owners. Second, the survey was conducted on a simple random sample of 87 Spanish wineries, stratified by region. Third, using a multivariate technique of factor analysis, the research found a set of 11 indicators describing the different types of measures adopted. In addition, a cluster analysis provided four different winery profiles. The first group comprises 37% of the wineries, whose sustainability actions are very focused on viticulture. The second group includes 22% of the wineries, which manage their activities according to widespread sustainability criteria. The third group is composed of 21% of the wineries, whose mitigation measures are only focused on energy. The fourth group includes 21% of the wineries, which are characterized by the absence of measures to achieve sustainability. Finally, the characteristics of the wineries and their responses to specific variables were studied, in relation to their belonging to the groups. The results show that the wineries of all the groups are aware of the existence of climate change and that it can seriously affect them. However, the adoption of measures is very variable from one group to another. Regarding the characteristics of the wineries, large companies and young professionals are positively related to the professional management of sustainability. The certification of organic production is frequent in the wineries, but it is not enough to guide them in their action against climate change. The calculation of the carbon footprint, which is not widespread, is associated with the wineries that systematically manage sustainability. In view of the results, some policies are suggested to favour the action of the vitivinicultural sector against climate change. Image 1 • A survey shows that Spanish wineries are aware of the risks of climate change. • Four profiles of wineries have been found, according to the measures they adopt. • The adoption of measures is limited and very variable from one group to another. • A wine sustainability is needed, covering both mitigation and adaptation. • Information to manage actions against climate change must be provided externally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• "Degree of carbonation" DoC, is a different concept than the depth of carbonation. • The DoC, is not higher when higher is the carbonation depth. They are independent. • DoC depends on the concrete humidity being highest in natural non-sheltered conditions. • After 2 years the DoC is independent of the age of the concrete. Cement manufacture is contributing to CO 2 emissions as calculated by the Intergovernmental Panel for Climatic Change of 520 kg of CO 2 per tonne of clinker. However, hydrated cement phases in concrete, absorb CO 2 through the carbonation of cement paste. Recently several studies have been published on the CO 2 uptake assuming a theoretical degree of carbonation, DoC, and multiplying it by the amount of concrete produced in the country, as made in the Annex BB of standard EN 16757 for the European Environmental Declarations. Present paper shows a study made in Spain on the CO 2 uptake during 4 years with two types of concretes, fifteen cements and three environments. The statistical analysis of the results indicated an average value of the degree of carbonation (DoC) for all cement types, except those containing high proportions of GGBS, of around 62.5% with a lower limit of 23% for the lower 5% fractile in the representation of the statistical distribution of values as a normal distribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]