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This paper examines the utilization of Arabic tautological expressions, provided by customers as a reiteration of an element of an English compound such as 'apple pie' [ fatˁi:rit ʔabil bai 'an apple pie pie'], from the perspective of Relevance Theory (RT). Data was collected from 90 participants, divided into two groups: 40 native speaker informants recruited from various shopping malls, and 50 shop assistants in Amman, Jordan. The first group was interviewed, whereas the second group filled out a multiple-choice task aimed at identifying the type of expression they typically receive when taking orders from customers. The data analysis revealed that Arabic tautological expressions are more frequently used compared to other alternatives. Drawing on RT, we argue that Arabic tautological expressions function as an ostensive stimulus. We propose that tautological expressions, utilized within a code-switching context, function as a means of pragmatic enrichment. This occurs through the process of ad hoc construction, wherein speakers refine the originally encoded concept to convey corrective or contrasting meanings. Instead of lacking information, the use of tautological phrases can be seen as a pragmatic tactic to maximize relevance by minimizing cognitive effort, optimizing successful communication of the intended meaning, and reinforcing contextual effects. • Examining the use of Arabic tautology in English compounds provided by customers. • Arabic tautologies are preferred and more frequently used than alternatives. • Drawing on RT, Arabic tautological expressions function as an ostensive stimulus. • The use of tautology conveys corrective or contrastive meanings via ad hoc concept construction. • The use of tautological phrases can be seen as a pragmatic tactic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports a study of Arabic-French language alternation in medical consultations in Algeria to reveal the ways in which code-switching is used to build and organise activities in medical interactions. Conversation analysis is applied to examine the participants' linguistic choices. Audio-recorded data was collected in two public hospitals in the Northwest of Algeria. This study suggests that there are misperceptions in the research literature about doctors' use of French as a resource to disempower patients and to limit their contribution in consultations. It refines our understanding of the nature of language alternation – code switching - in Algerian medical consultations. The results show that: 1) French is dispreferred with patients, 2) code-switching is used as a resource to organise and distinguish activities in turns and sequences, however, 3) doctors' use of French can contribute to pushing back against patients' resistance and to disaffiliate with patients' stances. • Language alternation on a moment-by-moment analysis of action in medical examinations. • Code switching is used as a resource to organise and distinguish activities in turns and sequences. • Arabic is preferred by doctors with both bilingual and monolingual patients. • Doctors' use French with patients when pushing back against patients' resistance and to disaffiliate with patients' stances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the ways that multilingual children attempt to access the English medium curriculum in Cameroonian primary education. We focus on Francophone Yaoundé where there has been a sharp rise in the number of children from predominantly Francophone multilingual homes attending English medium schools. The paper draws from a child-centred case study and data generated through classroom observations, child-group and individual interviews and recordings of student interactions around unsupervised tasks to show how learners are drawing from their multilingual resources to attempt to transgress monolingual norms in the classroom. The data also shows that learners are doing what they can to 'get by' but they are doing this in ways that are not supported by policy, pedagogy, or teaching materials. The paper concludes with a discussion of the ways that monolingual policies epistemically exclude children in an immensely complex multilingual context and draws implications for more inclusive policy and classroom practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pakistan is home to diverse multilingual practices. However, these practices have not been extensively explored. This paper unpacks the interactive practices of a group of students in a university in Pakistan from the perspective of translanguaging. In particular, the paper examines the languages students use in informal class discussions in a university setting and explores their motivations for using different languages within this setting. Data collected through observations, video-recording and semi-structured interviews were ethnographically analysed. The findings indicate that although the Medium of Instruction at the university is English, the students displayed unconscious use of translanguaging in their discussions of mainly English and Pashto (their native language), and some Urdu (the national language). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Having become famous thanks to publications in Russian publishing houses in the 1990s and 2000s, after 2014 the Russophone Odessite poet Boris Grigor'evich Khersonskii faced allegations of Russophobia for his pro-Ukrainian position and criticism of Russian interference in Crimea and the Donbas region of Ukraine. Over the post-Euromaidan years, the poet increasingly added Ukrainian-language translations of his Russian poems and texts originally written in Ukrainian to his portfolio. This paper1 investigates Khersonskii's forced choice of poetic language, zooming in on the post-2014 timeline of his increasingly Ukrainophone oeuvre and distinguishing between various digital and print genres, comprising both his Facebook blog and book publications such as Stalina ne bulo (There Was no Stalin) and Odesskaia intelligentsiia (Odessite Intelligentsia , both 2018). The paper analyzes the poet's linguistic performance with a special focus on his self-translations, which can be found online in Khersonskii's Facebook blog dating from October 30, 2013 to February 19, 2019, and proposes a postcolonial framing of self-translation and code-switching: in so doing, it defends the thesis that Khersonskii's anti-hegemonic code-switching is counterweighed by his subsequent self-translations and bilingual blogging, serving the goal of mitigating the bipolar language conflict in post-Maidan Ukraine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of mixed languages in daily conversations, referred to as “code-switching”, has become a common linguistic phenomenon among bilingual/multilingual communities. Code-switching involves the alternating use of distinct languages or “codes” at sentence boundaries or within the same sentence. With the rise of globalization, code-switching has become prevalent in daily conversations, especially among urban youth. This lead to an increasing demand on automatic speech recognition systems to be able to handle such mixed speech. In this paper, we present the first steps towards building a multilingual language model (LM) for code-switched Arabic-English. One of the main challenges faced when building a multilingual LM is the need of explicit mixed text corpus. Since code-switching is a behaviour used more commonly in spoken than written form, text corpora with code-switching are usually scarce. Therefore, the first aim of this paper is to introduce a code-switch Arabic-English text corpus that is collected by automatically downloading relevant documents from the web. The text is then extracted from the documents and processed to be useable by NLP tasks. For language modeling, a baseline LM was built from existing monolingual corpora. The baseline LM gave a perplexity of 11841.9 and Out-of-Vocabulary (OOV) rate of 4.07%. The gathered code-switch Arabic-English corpus, along with the existing monolingual corpora were then used to construct several LMs. The best LM achieved a great improvement over the baseline LM, with a perplexity of 275.41 and an OOV rate of 0.71%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite a rich body of research on face-work, how it is performed in online edu-social groups remains under-explored. Drawing on posts and comments of Facebook groups created for courses at a university in Hong Kong, together with interviews with students, tutors, and the lecturer, this article examines how code-switching is deployed as a powerful discursive resource in the performance of face-work. Notwithstanding English being the medium of instruction of the courses, code-switching is noticeable. Focusing on these participants' practices, our analysis discovers that code-switching serves primarily to signal the breakdown of the expectedly formal academic participation frame and the switch to an informal frame. Multiple layers of action frames are collaboratively and constantly designed and redesigned in these 'social network-educational spaces' (Chau and Lee, 2017), where the formal-informal, public-private, and academic-social boundaries become indistinct. Closer analysis within and across the spaces further reveals that norms of appropriateness of code-switching to achieve informality and solidarity may vary depending on a combination of individual, contextual, and temporal factors. In addition to contributing to existing literature on code-switching and face-work on Facebook, the article offers practical implications for understanding the increasingly informalized discourses in institutional contexts. • Code-switching is a face-work strategy to achieve informality and express solidarity in social network-educational spaces. • Norms of appropriateness of code-switching vary depending on individual, contextual, and temporal factors. • This paper contributes to the strand of literature on face-work with a focus on online discourse in a multilingual setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Much research has been conducted to apply data augmentation techniques (DA), i.e., transformations to a given training set to produce more data synthetically. While DA is often used in computer vision and speech recognition, it is not very common in Natural Language Processing, especially in the Named Entity Recognition (NER) task, i.e., identifying named entities. To the best of our knowledge, it is also not applied in NER on the challenging Code-Switching (CS) data, which is text containing more than one language in the same sentence. This paper presents several practical and easy-to-implement data augmentation techniques to improve the Arabic NER and especially on CS data based on word embedding substitution, a modified version of the Easy Data Augmentation technique, and back-translation. We demonstrate that the proposed methods boost the performance of the NER task on CS data through several experiments on an available AR-EN CS data-set with an increase of F-score equal to 1.5%. The proposed DA methods also eliminate the time and effort of collecting and labeling new data for low resources NER tasks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article analyses semantically-equivalent discourse markers (YOU KNOW/FIOS AGAD and ANYWAY/CO-DHIÙ) of two languages in contact—Scottish Gaelic and English—as a platform for investigating Auer's (1999) ‘Code-Switching-Language Mixing-Fused Lect’ continuum. Using a corpus of approximately ten hours of speech of older (over 50 years of age) Gaelic–English bilinguals, this paper shows how the use of English language discourse markers in salient positions and the subsequent salience bleaching of these discourse markers illustrates movement along Auer's continuum. However, the paper then discusses how rapid language shift and the emergence of ‘new’ speakers of Gaelic challenge Auer's assertion that contact may only progress, not regress, along the continuum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social media text can be classified in different ways, viz sentiment analysis, humour detection, hate speech detection and hope speech detection. Multitask learning (MTL) models built on Large Language Models (LLMs) eliminate the need to build separate models for each of these tasks. However, building MTL models by fully fine-tuning the LLM has limitations such as catastrophic forgetting and requiring complete retraining to add a new task. AdapterFusion was introduced to address these limitations. However, existing AdapterFusion techniques have not been experimented with code-mixed or code-switched text. Moreover, they only considered task-based AdapterFusion on monolingual LLMs. However, using monolingual LLMs is sub-optimal in classifying code-mixed or code-switched text. A better alternative is multilingual LLMs. In this paper, we present an MTL model that combines task AdapterFusion with language adapters on top of a multilingual LLM. We combine language adapters sequentially, in parallel, and as a fusion with task adapters to capture cross-lingual knowledge in code-mixed and code-switched text. We believe that this is the first research to introduce language-based AdapterFusion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In this paper we offer a panoramic overview of the development of Andean Spanish and Andean Linguistics, from a theoretical point of view of language contact and universal grammar. We discuss how the notion of Andean Spanish came into existence, the issues under debate, and the consequences of different theoretical positions. We also introduce the contents of the papers included in this special issue, and highlight their key points, framing them in the context of the research on universal grammar. The following five areas are covered: (1) the convergence of Quechua and Aymara, (2) the impact of bilingualism on intonation, (3) the sharing of suffixes in contact situations, (4) the modification of the present perfect tense in Spanish in contact with Quechua, and (5) the properties of the Quechua case system from the point of view of contact varieties. Finally, we provide some remarks on bilingual education, and some suggestions for further directions for future research. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Code-switching is a phenomenon in linguistics which refers to the use of two or more languages, especially within the same discourse. This phenomenon has been observed in many multilingual communities across the globe. In the recent past, there have been increasing demand for automatic speech recognition (ASR) systems to deal with code-switching. However, for training such systems, very limited code-switching resources are available as yet. Thus, the development of code-switching resources is highly desirable. In this work, we describe the collection of a Hinglish (Hindi-English) code-switching database at the Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati (IITG) which is referred to as the IITG-HingCoS corpus. This corpus consists of code-switching text data having 25,988 sentences with a total of 0.58 million words. In addition to that, the corpus also contains 25 h of matching speech data corresponding to 9251 code-switching sentences covering a vocabulary of 6542 words. This paper elaborates the sources and the protocol used for collecting the corpus. The baseline experimental results on the collected corpus for language modeling and ASR tasks are also presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Bilinguals with or without early Galician experience merge Galician mid vowels. • Galician and Spanish mid vowel contrasts occupy the same acoustic space. • Production of Galician and Spanish mid vowels is unaffected by code-switching. Abstract This paper examines the vowel productions of three groups of adult Galician-Spanish bilinguals: Spanish-dominant (SD) bilinguals, Galician-dominant (GD) bilinguals, and Dual Switch (DS) bilinguals who had early experience with Galician in the home, predominantly used Spanish upon school entry, but in adolescence/adulthood switched to Galician for ideological reasons. To examine how linguistic experience with Galician and Spanish affected the participants' speech, a cued picture-naming task, conducted in unilingual and code switched conditions, was used to elicit the Galician mid vowel contrasts /e-ɛ/ and /o-ɔ/ and the Spanish mid vowels /e/ and /o/. The results revealed no difference in either condition in normalised F1 and F2 across the front and back vowels in the two languages. These patterns not only held for the SD bilinguals, for whom vowel mergers were expected, but also the DS and GD bilinguals. As such, the study is the first to document widespread mergers of Galician mid-vowels in bilinguals with extensive early Galician language experience and regular use, and to demonstrate overlap with Spanish mid-vowel categories. The findings suggest that psycholinguistic factors, such as age of acquisition or language use, can only partially explain the data and that input-related and socio-indexical factors are equally critical in understanding the acquisition and maintenance of language-specific speech patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper presents additional evidence for the claim that the codes which participants in a bilingual interaction juxtapose to accomplish conversational tasks need not correspond to different monolingual linguistic systems. A sequential analysis of Serbian–English bilingual interaction reveals that both transferred lexical items morphologically integrated into the base grammatical system and morphologically unintegrated transferred lexical items may be oriented to by participants as upholding the norm negotiated for the interaction or as juxtaposed to it. Examples are presented to show that morphologically integrated lexical transfers can be oriented to as locally functional by participants, in which case they are meaningful in interactional terms, and that morphologically unintegrated lexical transfers are not always oriented to by participants as juxtaposed to the negotiated norm for the interaction, in which case they are non-meaningful in interactional terms. The paper argues that the analysis of bilingual talk-in-interaction which takes account of the structural features of the phenomena it studies ensures that form does not belie meaning and enriches our understanding of how varied in terms of form code-switched utterances can be. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Even though Norwegian is the predominant language in almost all sectors of society in Norway, there has been an increasing tendency in the university sector in the recent years to introduce English as a medium of instruction, particularly at the post-graduate level. Using English has for some years been politically encouraged as part of internationalisation efforts, while the questions of who, where and when have largely been left up to the individual university departments and staff. This paper presents a case study of one such university department, which conducts all their teaching through the medium of English. The study asks the questions: In which ways is English being used? Has the department''s English-only policy resulted in English only being used, or are Norwegian and other languages also used in certain circumstances, regardless of the policy? Why did this particular university department choose to make English its official language of instruction? The paper relates Fishman''s domain theory to code-switching theory, as defined by Fishman, Auer and Heller. It further discusses whether domain- and code-switching theory is compatible with Bourdieu''s theory of language and symbolic power, and Anderson''s theory on imagined communities, and whether the combined application of these theories may shed light on the linguistic situation in academia. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract In the FAME! project, we aim to develop an automatic speech recognition (ASR) system for Frisian-Dutch code-switching (CS) speech extracted from the archives of a local broadcaster with the ultimate goal of building a spoken document retrieval system. Unlike Dutch, Frisian is a low-resourced language with a very limited amount of manually annotated speech data. In this paper, we describe several automatic annotation approaches to enable using of a large amount of raw bilingual broadcast data for acoustic model training in a semi-supervised setting. Previously, it has been shown that the best-performing ASR system is obtained by two-stage multilingual deep neural network (DNN) training using 11 hours of manually annotated CS speech (reference) data together with speech data from other high-resourced languages. We compare the quality of transcriptions provided by this bilingual ASR system with several other approaches that use a language recognition system for assigning language labels to raw speech segments at the front-end and using monolingual ASR resources for transcription. We further investigate automatic annotation of the speakers appearing in the raw broadcast data by first labeling with (pseudo) speaker tags using a speaker diarization system and then linking to the known speakers appearing in the reference data using a speaker recognition system. These speaker labels are essential for speaker-adaptive training in the proposed setting. We train acoustic models using the manually and automatically annotated data and run recognition experiments on the development and test data of the FAME! speech corpus to quantify the quality of the automatic annotations. The ASR and CS detection results demonstrate the potential of using automatic language and speaker tagging in semi-supervised bilingual acoustic model training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper explores the mutually oriented work involved in collaborative, computer-aided text production taking place in a bilingual 4th grade classroom at an English school in Sweden. It reports on an in-depth analysis of a 55-min videotaped session in which two students engage in the production of a written report of the past weeks’ project work. The analysis focuses on the students’ language alternation, showing how a specific bilingual conversational order is produced by their extensive use of the co-available languages. Specifically, the analysis highlights a distinct division of labor between the two languages in which English is used exclusively for the purpose of producing the text proper, while Swedish is used for other forms of interaction. The results are discussed in terms of the relation between social structure and local bilingual practices of meaning construction. More generally, the paper argues for an approach to social interaction that treats the issue of social order as, above all, a matter of participants’ situated concerns. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In this paper, I investigate the Swedish, non-native use of English swear words in Swedish-language comic strips. I first consider the established relationships between both swearing and humor, and comics and humor. I propose that swear word usage and the comic strip framework contribute to a mutual feedback loop, whereby the comic strip derives its humor from the use of English swear words, while at the same time the comic strip context, by invoking a play frame, primes the swear word usage for humorous interpretation. Modeling Siegel (1995) , I then consider how a code-switch to English serves as a framing device or contextualization cue for humor in Swedish-language contexts. The analysis of a selection of Swedish comic strips draws from the Encryption Theory of Humor ( Flamson and Barrett, 2008 ), and suggests that humor created via the Swedish practice of swearing in English is a function of shared background knowledge that capitalizes on the fundamental incongruity of two discourse systems operating under different norms of appropriateness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite a long-standing interest in repair practices, much is yet to be learned about participants’ selections of components of the repair operation, and their systematic variation across contexts and languages ( Hayashi et al., 2013b; Kitzinger, 2013 ). The present paper targets the initiation of self-repair through examination of a particular discursive object, the Swedish conjunction eller (‘or’), located in repair-prefacing position in a corpus of 79 second language (L2) oral proficiency tests. In the corpus, eller is systematically produced in Swedish, while surrounding talk is produced in the target language, English. As such, the repair initiations are code-switched (e.g., Auer, 1998b ). Building on the recent work on or -prefaced repair initiations in English ( Lerner and Kitzinger, 2015 ), we examine the role of eller -initiated repair (EIR), i.e., repair prefaced by eller , in the context of paired L2 tests. We also contrast EIRs with or -prefaced repair initiations in the same dataset. Findings indicate that EIRs serve to display trouble awareness, which may relate to necessary revisions of both form and content of the talk in English. The ‘other-languageness’ ( Gafaranga, 2000 ) of the momentary code-switch amplifies test-takers’ attention to what needs to be replaced or revised, and indicates to co-participants that self-repair is underway. The practice helps push forward turn transition and pre-empts conclusions about the speaker's stance or linguistic competence, which may be particularly relevant in a language testing context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article adds to research on bilingual language alternation by investigating how language choice is managed at the crossroads of social norms and rules in the interaction of a bilingual classroom. Drawing on conversation analytic methodology, the paper examines sequences in which the teacher invokes a locally established, explicit rule whereby the students are to use L2 only in the classroom. Sequential analyses focus on how students respond to such teacher turns, addressing either the teacher or their peers, and how they align with the classroom rule in their responses. It is argued that when responding to rule-enforcement, students position themselves not only as regards the behavioural norm set by the particular classroom rule, but also in terms of teacher authority to regulate behaviour via such a rule. The implications of these micro-interactional findings to the social and ideological order of bilingual classrooms are briefly discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a code-switching automatic speech recognition (ASR) system built for the Frisian language is described. Frisian is mostly spoken in the province Fryslân which is located in the north of the Netherlands. The native speakers of Frisian are mostly bilingual and often code-switch in daily conversations due to the extensive influence of the Dutch language. In the scope of the FAME! Project, the influence of this unforeseen language switching on modern ASR systems will be investigated with the objective of building a robust recognizer that can handle this phenomenon. For this purpose, in this work, we design a bilingual deep neural network (DNN)-based ASR system and investigate the impact of bilingual DNN training in the context of code-switching speech. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Research on multilingual classrooms usually focuses on contexts where both teachers and pupils share the same linguistic repertoire; what can be called ‘symmetrical’ multilingual classrooms. This paper sets out to investigate whether (and how) pupils’ multilingual resources can be used in classrooms where the teacher does not share pupils’ multilingual repertoire; what can be called ‘asymmetrical’ multilingual classrooms. It focuses on the case of an induction classroom for newly arrived immigrant children in France, where the teacher is a French monolingual speaker while eight languages are spoken among the twelve pupils. Drawing on a sequential analysis (Schegloff, 2007) of a set of interactions audio-recorded in that classroom, I show how the traditional teaching practice of ‘label quests’ (Heath, 1986) can be accomplished multilingually. These examples of ‘multilingual label quests’ suggest that multilingual teaching practices are possible in the asymmetrical multilingual classroom. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The main aim of this paper is to test Matrix Language Frame (MLF) model of code-switching with Persian–English data, and to see whether the data confirm the principles of the model or not. A Persian–English corpus was provided from the formal and informal conversations of Persian–English bilinguals on TV shows. Then the three principles of the MLF model, that is, the Matrix Language principle, asymmetry principle, and uniform structure principle were verified. The results of the analyses suggest general support for the four principles of the MLF model. It is also concluded that Persian–English codeswitching does seem to be a ‘classic’ case of code-switching. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Based on a Chinese–English code-mixed treebank, this paper reports the probable syntactic consequences of code-switching. Compared with monolingual Chinese and English corpora, in the mixed corpus there are syntactic variations: variation in dependency distances and word-order variation in dependency direction. In the mixed corpus, there are two types of dependencies: monolingual and mixed dependencies. Mixed dependencies present longer dependency distances than monolingual ones. Major grammatical relations (subject, object, attribute and adverbial) and certain properties of code-switching (peripherality, flagging and dislocation) contribute to the variability of dependency distances. It is the distributions of major grammatical relations with different dependency directions in monolingual and mixed dependencies that cause the word-order variation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Hesitation and monitoring phenomena (hereafter HMP) are forms that occur in speech such as filled or unfilled pauses, paralinguistic markers such as (nervous) laughter or coughing, or signals which pre-empt or justify other forms in utterances. The functions of these forms have commonly been associated with planning or accessing difficulties. However, HMP can also have a function of signalling clause boundaries, changes of mood or topic, aiding intelligibility for listeners. This paper draws on a large sample of bilingual speech and examines the overall incidence of HMP from two contributing languages, Croatian and English, and their incidence in speech containing code-switching. Analysis of results seeks to establish whether there is disproportionately high frequency of HMP surrounding code-switches, and whether such HMP are indicative of accessing/production difficulties concomitant to the appearance of code-switches, or appear to perform a function that facilitates the intelligibility of code-switches. HMP co-occur disproportionately with code-switches. However, analysis of code-switching examples shows that different types of code-switches attract higher or lower frequencies of HMP, depending on their phonological and/or morphological form. Although not identical to discourse markers, HMP perform a congruent function, that of integrating or facilitating the incorporation of ‘other language’ text. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In this paper, the security enhanced OCDMA system based on spectral encoding using code-switching scheme is analyzed. The security issues are investigated by measuring eye diagrams and received signals for various cases. It has been observed; an eavesdropper based on a simple energy detector can easily read the information being transmitted by a single user using on–off keying. In order to increase the security a code-switching scheme is implemented on OCDMA. It is shown that the eye diagram at the eavesdropper becomes true noise waveform due to code-switching scheme and at the receiver end a clear eye diagram is observed. Hence, it is concluded that the code-switching scheme shows an immunity of the OCDMA system against eavesdropping and like conventional OCDMA schemes an authorized user clearly decodes an original data when a single user is active in the network. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Research on language classroom code-switching ranges from describing both teachers’ and learners’ first language and target language use to making connections between code-switching and student learning. However, few studies compare differences in practice between native and non-native speaker teachers and even fewer consider culture of learning as a variable. This paper presents recent results of a study documenting how three Japanese teachers, one of British and two of Japanese origin, differed in their use of classroom language delivered in the target language vs. the students’ first language. Findings include that language teachers’ code-switching practices can and often do differ substantially, influenced by the teacher''s culture of learning. Incorporating examples from data in the form of classroom observation field notes and semi-structured interviews, this study adds to the discussion surrounding the importance of language teacher education programs which prioritize investigation of teachers’ background and teaching context in course content. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper claims that lexical categories (V, N) and functional categories (D, I, C) behave differently in bilingual code-switching: whereas functional heads always determine the order of their code-switched complements, lexical heads may not do so. This proposal thus deviates from many recent studies which suggest that all heads determine the order of their complements (e.g. Mahootian, 1993; MacSwan, 1999; Nishimura, 1997; Nishimura and Yoon, 1998). Assuming a “Null Theory” perspective (Mahootian, 1993; MacSwan, 1999), code-switching data are explained here in terms of existing syntactic apparatus which also governs monolingual syntax. It is proposed that word order between lexical categories and their complements is determined by head parameter instead of feature strength as an intrinsic property of the lexical heads. Nonetheless, head-complement order is inherently specified in functional categories. On this account, prepositions are functional heads instead of lexical heads. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The ban on code-switching between a (subject) pronoun and a verb, but not between a lexical DP and a verb, is an enduring puzzle in research on bilingual code-switching. In this paper, we propose an account of these code-switching facts by positing that pronouns and lexical DPs take advantage of different checking strategies: While lexical DPs check features in [Spec, TP], pronouns undergo D-to-T movement. In the latter case, a mixed-language complex head results, a construction which crashes at PF, as predicted by the PF Disjunction Theorem. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Focusing on code-switching from conversation analysis and sociolinguistic perspectives, this paper examines interactions between 10–12-year-old language learners of immigrant origin and locally born students as they are engaging in verbal pair work. All are students attending language classes in state primary schools in Barcelona in which Catalan is the official language of the institution, Spanish is the common language of communication among students, and English is taught as a foreign language. By examining transcripts of recorded interactions between student pairs, we analyze the role played by Catalan and Spanish code-switching in the context of classes where students are studying Catalan and English. Our results show that language alternation serves to address practical issues related to the management and completion of the assigned pair activities. We will argue that, although code-switching is a resource available to students in multilingual contexts, rather than a distorting element, the implicit and non-implicit language policies in the classroom cannot be separated from the analysis of multilingual switches and the concept of plurilingual competence. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The present paper explores how children participate in peer play activities in a multilingual preschool setting. Participation is understood as a practical achievement in social interaction. Through in-depth analyses of video recordings of peer play, the study demonstrates how the children artfully exploit a range of multimodal resources in play activities. Of special interest are: the children''s coordination of nonvocal actions with talk; and: how such complex action types are produced to accomplish and sustain participation in multi-party play. The analyses highlight two interactional phenomena of interest for our understanding of the children''s conduct, namely ‘shadowing’ and ‘crossing’. Shadowing refers to the carefully tailored delivery of an action, which repeats an immediately preceding move of another participant. Crossing () relates to a specific instance of language alternation, through which participants align with and make use of their interlocutors’ linguistic and ethnic backgrounds. It is shown how these different types of verbal as well as nonvocal resources are intertwined, sequentially organized and collaboratively deployed in children''s construction of locally accountable actions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper examines the presence of English-origin discourse markers in otherwise Croatian speech. Previous examinations of bilingual discourse marking have focused on habitualisation, pragmatic transference, cognitive processes (in terms of reducing the ‘mental load’ of distinguishing between two systems) or psycholinguistic factors (e.g. ‘non-deactivation’ of pragmatic forms from one language which speakers habitually speak). However, such studies only address transference of pragmatic norms, whether features and/or forms. They have limited explanatory power where speakers employ discourse forms from one language and equivalent forms from the other language. This study examines the frequency and functionality of English-origin forms compared to Croatian ones in a sample based on speech recordings of 100 Croatian–English bilinguals. Findings here show that English forms generally co-occur with Croatian forms in a statistical sense and only displace Croatian ones where English forms are polyfunctional or perform more functions that their Croatian counterparts. This accounts for the higher statistical frequency of forms such as yeah and so, while forms such as no and you know co-occur to the same degree as their Croatian equivalents. Where a Croatian item such as kao (‘like’) can fulfil more functions than its English equivalent it is shown to have a higher incidence than like. Thus, linguistic, in particular micro-discourse, features are shown to influence selection of discourse markers. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The main aim of this paper is to test the Matrix Language Frame (MLF) model of code-switching with Welsh-English data, and to determine whether Welsh-English is a “classic case” of code-switching in that a matrix language can be clearly identified in bilingual clauses. The MLF model is currently one of the most influential in this field, and has been successfully applied to several other language pairs. Three principles associated with it, the Matrix Language Principle, the Asymmetry Principle and the Uniform Structure Principle, were tested on data collected from informal conversations by bilingual Welsh-English speakers located in north-west Wales. The results of the analyses suggest general support for the three principles and for labelling Welsh-English code-switching “classic”. These results are compared with those from other studies of classic and other kinds of code-switching. Finally, the implications for the MLF model are examined. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper reports the results of a study of primary school mathematics teaching in northern Botswana in order to highlight the strategies teachers use in bi/multilingual classrooms. Questionnaire and interview data collection procedures were used. The findings, which are based on responses of randomly selected primary school teachers, confirmed that monolingual classes were fewer than bilingual and multilingual classes in those parts of Botswana. Furthermore, syllabus analysis confirmed the abstract nature of mathematical concepts. Teachers report to have devised strategies to overcome the difficulties imposed by this classroom situation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper investigates the part that social roles play in the interpretation of code-switching in a Chinese American family dispute. In this dispute, a mother and her adult daughter argue over where the mother should be employed, frequently switching between Cantonese and English, despite definite, and different, language preferences. Calling this argument a mother–daughter dispute is problematic, as the daughter repeatedly attempts to adopt an authoritative ‘parent’ role, while the mother sometimes takes on an advice-seeking ‘child’ role. At the same time, these challenges to social expectations, and the mother''s persistent rejection of many of these attempts, are important parts of this argumentative context. Applying a conversation analytic approach that examines the relevance of these social roles empirically and sequentially, we find that social roles and expectations can be, but are not always, useful in understanding language alternation in this family dispute, and that language alternation can be involved in structuring and restructuring family relationships in talk. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper discusses McCormick's sociolinguistic study Language in Cape Town's District Six [McCormick, K., 2003. Language in Cape Town's District Six. Oxford University Press, Oxford] and locates it within the fields of South African sociolinguistics and language contact studies. McCormick's work raises pertinent questions about sociolinguistic historiography, fieldwork methodology, bilingualism, (socio-)linguistic meaning, and the permeability of linguistic boundaries in language contact. McCormick approaches bilingual speech first and fore- most from a code-switching perspective, broadly combining Myers-Scotton's markedness model with conversation-analysis approaches (Gumperz/Auer). However, there is also evidence in the data that conversational language use in this bilingual working-class community can be interpreted within the framework of mixed languages and bilingual convergence. This raises important questions about norm formation and stabilization in language contact situations, and about the diachronic trajectories of bilingual speech. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents discourse data to argue for the treatment of dialect as a variety in a repertoire whose primary function is microcontextually socioindexical. Dialect forms used by bilectal participants minimally encode stances of alterity between interactants. The association of dialect features with regional provenance and judgments of regional identity made for dialect forms are treated as linguistic ideological processes. The interpretation of dialect forms in use as interactional altering devices is explained through a specific Japanese linguistic ideology involving uchi 'in group' and sow 'out group' boundaries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Twenty-four studies on twenty-three distinct languages and eleven social media illustrate the steady interest in deep learning approaches for multilingual sentiment analysis of social media. We improve over previous reviews with wider coverage from 2017 to 2020 as well as a study focused on the underlying ideas and commonalities behind the different solutions to achieve multilingual sentiment analysis. Interesting findings of our research are (i) the shift of research interest to cross-lingual and code-switching approaches, (ii) the apparent stagnation of the less complex architectures derived from a backbone featuring an embedding layer, a feature extractor based on a single CNN or LSTM and a classifier, (iii) the lack of approaches tackling multilingual aspect-based sentiment analysis through deep learning, and, surprisingly, (iv) the lack of more complex architectures such as the transformers-based, despite results suggest the more difficult tasks requires more elaborated architectures. • Review of applications of Deep Learning to tackle Multilingual Sentiment Analysis. • Fast-growing interest in this field, 24 related papers since 2017 to 2020. • Coverage of 23 different languages and 11 social media data or corpus. • Mixed performance, but word embeddings and CNN or LSTM as trending choices. • Embeddings>feature extractor>classifier, prevailing architecture except for aspect SA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Three acoustic data augmentation methods were studied for the code-switching ASR. • A CS detection system was proposed to extract real code-switched speech segments. • Semi-supervised and active learning were investigated to produce the CS transcriptions. • The proposed approach outperforms the conventional techniques significantly. • The effectiveness of synthesized code-switched utterances was very limited. Code-switching (CS) is a multilingual phenomenon where a speaker uses different languages in an utterance or between alternating utterances. Developing large-scale datasets for training code-switching acoustic and language models is challenging and extremely expensive. In this paper, we focus on the acoustic data augmentation for the Mandarin-English CS speech recognition task. Effectiveness of conventional acoustic data augmentation approaches are examined. More importantly, we propose a CS acoustic event detection system based on the deep neural network to extract real code-switching speech segments automatically. Then, the semi-supervised and active learning techniques are investigated to generate transcriptions of these segments. Finally, code-switching speech synthesis system is introduced to further enhance the acoustic modeling. Experimental results on the OC16-CE80 data, a Mandarin-English mixlingual speech corpus, demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]