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Abstract: Coalbed methane (CBM) or coal seam gas (CSG) as it is known in Australia is becoming an increasingly important source of energy around the world. Many countries such as United States, Canada, Australia and China are investing in the CSG industry. A rise in the cost of conventional natural gas and many other energy resources, along with a decline in these conventional resources and issues such as climate change have encouraged a global interest in alternative sources of energy like CSG. The estimated quantity of CSG worldwide is around 1.4×1014 m3, it is clear that coal seam gas is a significant source of energy. The first section of this paper will discuss the production size of CSG worldwide and the future of the industry. The usage of the coal bed seam for the sequestration of CO2 is also an added benefit. The reduction of CO2 released to the environment may help in the future mitigation of global warming. In addition, the re-injecting of the co-produced CO2 enhances the commercial recovery and production of CSG wells. In the second section, the impact of the CSG industry's by-products on the environment, the freshwater ecosystem and human health are analysed. The second section includes issues associated with the large volume of co-produced water with undesirable composition in the CSG industry. The management of this enormous amount of water requires cost effective technologies and methods. Many methods for dealing with water problems are discussed and analysed in this paper. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Hydrogen is a potential future solution addressing global warming, climate change, and energy security challenges. It efficiently allows for storing excess renewable energy and generating heat and electricity without increasing greenhouse gas emissions. It can create a practical pathway to replace fossil fuel vehicles and move toward a net-zero transport sector. Various hydrogen strategies and industry roadmaps have been developed to identify key goals, set targets for progress, and develop strategic plans to remove barriers. As identified through these documents, the development of consistent national and international codes and standards and the creation of clear procedures and regulations are essential for the safe implementation and adaptation of hydrogen systems, leading to the successful process of hydrogen sector. This paper provides a comprehensive and critical review of the different aspects of hydrogen safety to advance hydrogen regulations, codes, and standards. While it summarises the key international hydrogen frameworks, the main focus of the paper is on Australian plans, progress, and working groups for hydrogen deployment that will help future green energy society. • The safety developments affect the cost of Australian hydrogen scaling targets. • Training and safety developments are essential to achieve public trust in Australia. • Better community engagement is needed to move from hydrogen planning to its development. • Data-based tools assist the development of hydrogen safety procedures in Australia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrogen supplying to industrial users is currently the major hydrogen business worldwide and the demand for hydrogen is almost entirely supplied from fossil fuels. In the last years a widespread interest on hydrogen has grown as energy vector for the decarbonization of multiple sectors, including industry, transport and buildings. Nevertheless, the impact of natural gas and other fossil fuels substitution with hydrogen is highly affected by the mix of different technologies and energy sources applied for hydrogen generation. The paper aims to investigate current CO 2 emissions related with hydrogen generation in Australia and Italy by means of PEM and alkaline technologies; and to evaluate the potential impact considering cell characteristics variation and 3 scenarios based on energy mix. A sensitivity analysis is performed to identify the critical parameters. Based on experimental data, the energy consumption for hydrogen production using PEM technology is more sensitive to cell voltage compared to current density, which indicates the importance of cell manufacturing and electrolyte resistance. In addition, by performing sensitivity analysis regarding energy sources scenarios it is found that carbon dioxide emission in Australia is more sensitive to renewable energy sources rather than Italy. [Display omitted] • Importance of manufacturing and electrolyte resistance because of high PEM energy consumption sensitivity to cell voltage. • Predicted emission in 2030 is 5–10 kg CO 2 using PEM/alkaline technology in Italy. • 18% reduction of national electricity grid CO 2 emission in Australia is predicted. (In 2030 in comparison to 2019). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Australia has significant offshore wind resources that can support ever-increasing power demand and hence provide a long-term contribution to the net-zero target by 2050. Although some offshore wind farm projects are proposed in Australia, the industry is not mature enough to justify the benefits and display economic opportunities. More specifically, the techno-economic analysis of offshore wind energy has not been systematically mapped in Australia. Therefore, the investigation of the spatial variation of technical feasibility and economic potential of offshore wind is vital to identify the potential regions and to develop strategies for future offshore wind farm developments in Australia. This paper presents detailed mappings of the techno-economic potential of offshore wind energy in Victoria-Tasmania's exclusive economic zone. Offshore wind energy resources are assessed in the paper in terms of energy availability and variability and the feasibility of various offshore wind technologies is investigated, including turbines, foundation types and transmission topologies. In addition, the high-fidelity life-cycle cost models and two innovative evaluation matrices are developed to assess the economic potential of offshore energy farms in South-eastern Australia. The impact of local power system regulation costs and future carbon prices on the viability of offshore wind is also investigated in this paper. It is concluded that the detailed mapping approach and analysis in the paper can provide a systematic tool for industry partners, investors and policymakers at the pre-planning stage of developing offshore renewable energy systems. • The technical feasibility of offshore wind is mapped under various constraints. • The novel LACE and high-fidelity LCC assessment models are developed. • The techno-economic potential is systemically mapped in South-eastern Australia. • The impacts of electricity market regulation and future carbon prices are studied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microgrids are extensively integrated into electrical systems due to their many technical, economic, and environmental advantages. However, they encounter a challenge as they experience high-frequency fluctuations caused by the stochastic nature of renewable energy generation, electric loads, and the presence of Electric Vehicles (EVs). Therefore, various techniques, algorithms, and controllers have been introduced to ensure effective Load Frequency Control (LFC) and maintain a stable power system in microgrids. These methods aim to ensure that the system's frequency remains stable and within an acceptable range, especially when faced with changing load demands and other factors. This paper presents a novel enhanced control approach, Particle Swarm Optimization-Trained Artificial Neural Network (PSO-TANN), to optimize the load frequency model of a microgrid with vehicle-to-grid integration. The results are then compared under various scenarios, including renewable energy integration, EV charging and discharging dynamics, and varying load demands. The comparative analysis involves assessing the performance of the conventional Proportional–Integral–Derivative (PID) controller, the PSO-PID controller, and the newly proposed controlling technique. The suggested controller attains 99.904% efficiency with a negligible mean squared error of 1.1112 × 10−7, decreasing the integrated time absolute error to 1.0 × 10−4. It shows rapid response, precise targeting, and quick peak output ability, with marginal overshoot and undershoot, and a transient time of 28.5626 s, efficiently controlling microgrid frequency. Stability analysis validates the effectiveness of the proposed PSO-TANN controller in ensuring stability within the microgrid's LFC system during uncertainties and disturbances. This establishes resilience, diminishes settling time, and maintains reliable performance while controlling frequency. • An investigation into an islanded microgrid's Load Frequency Control (LFC) model framework has been conducted, comprising diesel generator, solar PV system, wind turbine, and EVs operating in vehicle-to-grid mode to supply power to electric loads, consequently impacting the frequency dynamics of the microgrid system. • A novel enhanced control approach, Particle Swarm Optimization-Trained Artificial Neural Network (PSO-TANN) has been implemented to optimize the load frequency model of a microgrid. • An extensive comparative analysis with other controllers, including PID and PSO-PID, is conducted across diverse scenarios involving renewable energy integration and EV charging and discharging dynamics under various load disturbances to reduce settling time, control system frequency, and ensure reliable performance. • The stability analysis validates the efficiency of the proposed PSO-TANN controller in ensuring reliability during uncertainties and disturbances, maintaining overall robustness and stability of the LFC system within the microgrid. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increased penetration of renewable energy sources (RESs) as an effective mechanism to reduce carbon emissions leads to an increased weather dependency for power and energy systems. This has created dynamic operation and degradation phenomena, which affect the lifetime estimation of the assets operated with RESs. For the reliable and efficient operation of RES it is crucial to monitor the health of its constituent components and feature selection is a crucial step for building robust and accurate health monitoring approaches. In this context, this paper presents a probabilistic feature selection approach, which probabilistically weights and selects features through a heuristic and iterative process for an improved asset lifetime estimation. Power transformers are key power grid assets and they are used to demonstrate the validity and impact of the proposed approach. The approach is tested on two different photovoltaic power plants operated in Spain and Australia. Results consistently show that the proposed feature-selection approach reduces the prediction error and consistently selects relevant features. The approach has been applied to transformer lifetime estimation, but it can be generally applied to assist in the lifetime estimation of other components operated in RESs. Part of the studies presented here as well as source codes are all open-source under the GitHub repository https://github.com/iramirezg/FeatureSelection. • Probabilistic feature selection approach for improved asset lifetime estimation. • Integration of environmental features for improved renewable-operated asset lifetime. • Systematic and robust feature weighting methodology. • Improved transformer lifetime estimation including sensor and environmental data. • Validated on two real photovoltaic power plant case studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Offshore wind energy and wave energy are two exploitable sources of renewable energy available in the same marine environment. A co-located energy harvesting system of these two resources has the potential to play a leading role in the recent renewable energy mix mandate. A co-located system of mature offshore wind technology and a nascent wave energy technology can exploit the synergies of the two technologies, including the reduced cost, the easy operation and maintenance, and more importantly the potential of decreased power variability. This paper deals with a multi-site analysis of wind and wave power resources, and the estimation of exploitable energy through different wind turbines and wave energy converters (WECs). Results are presented for NSW Australia, but the devised strategy is generic and can be implemented in any region. Ten WECs, with different operating principles, are used for the estimation of the exploitable wave power, and the best performing converter is considered for the co-located wind-wave farm. A power fluctuation factor is introduced to quantify the reduction in power variability of the co-located wind-wave farm. Different percentage mixes of wind and wave energy are evaluated for the co-located wind-wave farm in the multi-site analysis. •A multi-site analysis of wind and wave for estimation of exploitable energy. •Performance evaluation of wind and wave energy conversion technologies. •Power variability representation with power fluctuation factor for a co-located farm. •Characterization of percentage share of wind and wave in a co-located farm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Comparing the United Kingdom's Renewables Obligation and Australia's Renewable Energy Target, this paper reconstructs the market for green certificates in which penalties are imposed on missed certificates. Our analysis shows that excess demand in the Renewables Obligation makes the penalty the minimum certificate price, but excess supply in the Renewable Energy Target makes the penalty the maximum certificate price. Further, excess supply also implies that the sales of certificates are not guaranteed in the Renewable Energy Target. Therefore, compared to the Renewables Obligation, generators face greater risk under the Renewable Energy Target as there is more uncertainty about the price of certificates and the possibility of sales. • Reconstruct demand and supply curves for TGC models. • Excess demand (supply) makes the penalty the minimum (maximum) certificate price. • The recycling mechanism pushes up the certificate price in the RO. • The refunding mechanism pushes down the certificate price in the RET. • Generators under TGC with excess supply face greater price risk and volume risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anaerobic digestion (AD) is a viable technique to address food waste (FW) problems by converting FW into sustainable energy. Despite the advantages of the AD process, large-scale AD plants like in Germany and the USA have not been developed in Australia. Therefore, this paper aims to study the technological, economic, and environmental feasibility of sustainable energy production from household FW in Australia. In addition, this paper discusses the different waste to energy (WtE) technologies along with the operational parameters as well as the challenges in developing a biogas plant. The energy and economic potential analysis of the AD process indicates that the processing of 10% FW from Australian states and territories can generate 1.22 GWh to 35.4 GWh electricity which can subsequently earn AUD 0.54 million to AUD 15.7 million revenue per year. The greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions analysis indicates that conversion of the 10% of Australian FW has the potential to lower GHG emissions by 639,852 tonnes per annum. Hence, it can be said that FW plays a vital role as a promising source of sustainable energy and is capable of benefiting the country's economy significantly and reducing GHG emissions. • FW is a potential source of sustainable energy. • AD is a useful waste to energy process for producing clean energy. • Conversion of FW into energy can significantly lower GHG emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Proponents of low-carbon transformation face an uphill battle to reconfigure incumbent energy systems against powerful interests protecting the status quo. Australia's electricity sector is an example of such a system, wedded to fossil fuels and backed by much of the country's political establishment. This paper addresses the potential for low-carbon transformation in Australia's electricity sector. It explores the complex and uncertain dynamics shaping the sector and outlines how these can be understood through the lens of strategic agency – with an eye for opportunities to drive a shift to renewables. It reviews the dynamics of change and re-stability shaping Australia's electricity sector between 2006 and 2015 and applies a resource-based view of transformative agency to analyse these dynamics. Results show the sector suffers multiple stressors and emphasise disruptive changes ‘in the pipeline’. Critically, many of these transformative dynamics stem from factors outside the influence of the electricity sector and its supporters. While results do not point to a clear trajectory or outcome of transformation, they indicate the uptake of small-scale solar photovoltaic (PV) systems by households and small business will play a defining role in the sector's future configuration. Furthermore, the exploration of transformative dynamics affecting the electricity sector through a resource-based lens shows that many opportunities exist for strategic agents to intervene in support of a disruptive shift to renewables. The paper suggests a range of mechanisms that agents could use to undermine the strength of fossil energy in the electricity sector and encourage a shift to renewables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Both developed and developing countries have committed to reduce their emissions through the increased use of renewable energy. This paper aims to compare renewable energy deployment in developed and developing countries represented by Australia and China. The paper firstly argues the validity of comparison of renewable energy deployment in Australia and China. Then, the governance structures in both countries are compared; the paper also compares management mechanisms in terms of funding and incentive support, renewable energy grid-connection and coordination between different levels of governments in both countries. Moreover, the current status of renewable energy development in two countries is summarized. From the study, it can be concluded both countries have set a Renewable Energy Target and promulgated legislation and regulations to enlarge the scale of renewable energy; China shows a stronger commitment to renewable energy than Australia. However, Renewable Energy Certificate mechanism is implemented more effectively in Australia than in China. The paper suggests: augmenting and rebuilding the electricity network and strengthening coordination between different levels of governments for both countries; enhancing manufacturing facilities and incentives for the solar and wind industry for Australia, while developing more-detailed implementation legislation and renewable power quota system for China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Smart Grid (SG) is an emerging concept, which is in a testing phase in many countries. It is a relatively new perception that integrates electricity and communication on power system networks, which enable SG applications, mainly for the use of Renewable Energy Sources (RES). This paper presents a review of the existing studies on SG systems, the use of SG technologies and the modeling techniques for SG available in the literature. Furthermore, the paper focuses on SG features when connected at a distribution grid and its active distribution management capability. It also identifies the current practice as provided in technical standards and potential industry investments that can facilitate a pathway towards SG development in Australia. The paper also has highlighted the possible areas of research that would be required to implement practical SG facilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To meet the future energy demand and avert any looming crises, efforts are being carried out to utilize sustainable and renewable energy resources. In this paper, the naturally occurring non-linearity and non-stationarity deficiencies within the climatological predictors to forecast solar radiation (Rdn) are resolved via a multivariate empirical mode decomposition method (MEMD). First, a set of antecedent weekly lags at timescale (t -1) of input datasets were collated and then were divided into training and testing subsets. The MEMD method is restricted to dissolve the training and testing climatic data independently into intrinsic modes functions (IMFs). As the numbers of total IMFs were very large, the singular value decomposition (SVD) algorithm is accustomed for dimensionality reduction simultaneously capturing the most relevant oscillatory features embedded within the IMFs. Finally, the random forest (RF) model is applied to forecast Rdn at selected solar-rich regions in Australia. The resulting hybrid MEMD-SVD-RF model was established as a consequence of the aforementioned modelling strategy. The results are benchmarked with other comparative models. The hybrid MEMD-SVD-RF model generates better and reliable forecasts having significant implications for renewable and sustainable energy applications and resources management. • A double decomposition based solar radiation forecasting model incorporating climate drivers. • Multivariate decomposition splits climate drivers into intrinsic mode functions (IMF). • Singular value decomposition reduces dimensionality to pertinent features from a pool of IMFs. • Random Forest (RF) algorithm used to design newly integrative hybrid model. • Hybrid model provides significant energy management implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Renewable energy sources such as wind farms and solar power plants are replacing conventional coal-based synchronous generators (SGs) to achieve net-zero carbon emissions worldwide. SGs play an important role in enhancing system strength in a power system to make it more stable during voltage/frequency disruptions. However, traditional coal-fired SGs are being decommissioned in many parts of the world, owing to stringent environmental regulations and low levelized cost of energy of renewables. Consequently, maintaining system strength in a renewable energy-dominated power system has become a major challenge, and without adequate mitigation techniques, low system strength can potentially cause widespread power outages. This paper provides an overview of system strength and its measurement techniques in a power system with a large number of renewable energy sources (RESs), for example solar and wind farms. The review includes the system strength measurement techniques, mitigation approaches, and future challenges. • A comprehensive review on system strength for Australia. • Integration of power systems with large number of renewable energy sources. • Measurement and mitigation techniques for system strength shortfalls. • Analysis of future challenges and research directions on system strength. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper focuses on the calculation of the carbon footprint of a typical West Australian mine site village and the ways by which it can be reduced to a point where the village can be legitimately described as ‘carbon neutral’. The study contributes to a broader ARC joint research program by Murdoch and Curtin Universities entitled ‘Decarbonising Cities and Regions’. The term carbon neutral has a far from uniform definition. For the purpose of the carbon accounting that follows carbon neutrality is achieved when there is a net zero carbon footprint across the full life cycle or when total emissions are balanced by total offsets. As much of the full life cycle of the village as is practical is included in the process and acknowledges any omissions made. The paper will show how the carbon footprint of a mine site village in Western Australia's mid-west has been measured, calculated and reduced effectively to a point where carbon neutrality can be claimed. This will commence with calculation of the embodied and operational energy in constructing and operating the village, followed by methods towards achieving carbon neutrality. The latter includes energy efficiency opportunities; an environmental and economic sustainability assessment of renewable energy and construction materials; design modification of the infrastructure; and assessment of accredited biomass offset mechanisms. The whole process has been termed LEVI©, Low Energy Village Infrastructure. An economic assessment of the carbon neutral strategy is the key to implementation. Mining companies are particularly drawn to the ‘bottom line’ when making investment decisions and only sound financial analysis will facilitate substantial carbon neutral expenditure. LEVI© significantly includes a net present cost (NPC) analysis of all such investment and belies the myth that carbon neutral mine site accommodation cannot be achieved. The paper then presents a carbon accounting methodology of the case study mine site village and set out the results and overall carbon emissions the village is responsible for. This life cycle analysis (LCA) is done from cradle to gate in terms of LCA terminology and represents the manufacture, construction, installation and operation. Energy efficiencies and behavioural changes are then applied and estimated as to their carbon reductive effect on the total carbon, followed by verifiable renewable energy offsets. These offsets are substantiated by a vigorous renewable energy analysis and selection supported by an NPC analysis. An optimum renewable energy system (RE) is then selected (best value for money) and its carbon reducing effect over the current power system calculated. This amount, together with that produced by energy efficiencies and behavioural changes, makes a total carbon reduction and is annualised. The paper clearly shows that the projected life of the mine, and therefore the village, is a critical factor in the overall carbon analysis and that the optimum time period within which carbon neutrality of such a mine site village can be claimed lays somewhere between 7 and 10 years. Another key finding was that the capital expenditure (CAPEX) savings by developing such a village as a standalone facility produces clear advantages over connection to a mine power generation system as is the case study example. The optimum standalone RE system for introduction from 2014 was found to be 110 kW fixed amorphous photovoltaic array and two 100 kW wind turbines with one 150 kW and one 100 kW low-cycle diesel generators as a backup. The projected cost was approximately $2 million. It is contended that the metrics produced from the results can provide a pro-rata basis with which to model future carbon neutral villages of similar construction. The model accommodates dependencies such as life of mine, size of village, number of workers and location. The paper will describe some innovative solutions and outcomes from this research that may be applied to the built environment on a broader scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global concerns around climate change and the volatility of conventional fuel prices have prompted researchers and technologists to make significant efforts to identify and exploit alternative energy sources that are cleaner and more sustainable. Wind energy has seen considerable development among these alternative energy sources, mainly due to its abundance and global availability for extraction and the existing knowledge within the aviation and aerospace fields. Many nations, including European countries, already operate offshore wind farms (OWFs) and are progressively carrying out new projects and expanding on other projects. The Australian offshore environment provides unique opportunities for wind energy extraction, particularly along the southern coast of mainland Australia and the regions around Tasmania, where substantially strong winds blow most of the year. A significant challenge to establishing wind farms is the selection of site locations with optimal outputs. This can become a complex decision-making problem if there are numerous options and no information from previous projects. This paper aims to develop a decision-making framework to select the optimal location for installing OWFs while addressing financial, performance-related, and availability-related objectives. This paper adopts a game-theoretical approach to develop a decision-support tool to account for the interdependencies of influencing factors and possible conflicts amongst the parties. The game model is applied to an OWF development case study in the Bass Strait, known for its dominant and strong winds. • A framework to find the optimal location for installing Offshore Wind Farms (OWFs). • Game theory decision-making methodology for offshore renewable energy applications. • Define the influencing factors and conflicts amongst the interested parties. • Apply to OWFs development in Bass Strait, known for its dominant and strong winds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The concept of net zero energy and zero emission home has been a goal for those involved in the sustainable building industry. It is now becoming a reality in many parts of the world with an integrated approach of passive design, energy efficient appliances and local renewable generation. The paper describes the activities in Australia focussing on reducing energy use from the housing sector. It describes the regulatory approach of energy performance for housing which involves developing a house energy rating tool covering the building envelope as well as major energy consuming appliances. It also describes the implementation process which comprises gradually more stringent regulations coupled with financial inducements. The paper describes a world leading new Australian housing development where net zero energy homes are being built and enjoyed. It tells the story of how this outcome is being achieved starting with the planning process and developing environmental guidelines. The paper describes the innovations being used in order to achieve net zero energy homes and reports on energy monitoring results and feedback from householders. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Nowadays renewable sources are being used as clean sources to generate electricity and to reduce the dependency on fossil fuels. The uses of renewable sources are being increased in electricity generation and contributed to reduce the greenhouse gas emission. The function of any electrical power system is to connect everyone sufficiently, clean electric power anywhere and anytime of the country. This can be achieved through a modern power system by integrating electrical energy from clean renewable sources into the nation''s electric grid to enhance reliability, efficiency and security of the power system. The paper on the status of review the driving force of the generation of renewable energy and proposing electrical energy generation from renewable sources to be ensured at least 20% of total energy of Australia. This paper has been studied the existing electricity generation capacity of Australia from renewable and non-renewable sources. Optimal electricity generation from renewable sources has been examined. The environmental impact of electricity generation from renewable sources has been considered. Under this paper the yearly average wind data of past 20 years and above for some meteorological stations of Australia have been used. The prospective electricity generation from wind turbines and solar photovoltaic panels has been proposed in the paper that will increase electrical energy of the power grid of Australia. It was estimated the capital cost of prospective electricity generation farms from wind and solar PV sources. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Despite possessing a very large potential of renewable energy sources, Australia has lagged behind other developed countries in embracing renewable energy. Various programs and policies have been devised and implemented by Australian governments. Nevertheless, the proportion of renewable energy in electricity generation in Australia has not increased significantly. This paper seeks to explain why Australia has difficulties in adopting renewable energy by using the Political Aspect of Innovation (PAI) framework to examine the causes and barriers that have blocked the taking up of renewable energy. The PAI framework is concerned specifically with public innovation policy in Australia and the way it aims to encourage and support investment in new technology development. The paper finally outlines some future suggestions for charting the progression of the Australian energy system toward a transformative sustainable future. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Narratives and discourses are central to how we interpret and understand the world. The capacity to construct and disseminate compelling stories about particular issues is hence critical to an agent''s capacity to advance their interests. This paper examines some of the main narratives through which the conversation about renewable energy in Australia takes place. We label these narratives feasibility (‘Pie in the Sky’); security (‘Keeping the Lights on’); cost (‘Costing the Earth’); and employment (‘Jobs Carnage’). Some of the most effective narratives are those that are constructed around some of the ‘legitimate’ concerns that pertain to an issue. The renewable energy narratives identified in this paper build on ‘reasonableness’ and ‘common sense’ concerns, and their effectiveness is determined as much by contextualising information absent from the energy conversation as present. While our focus is Australia, some of the narrative dynamics revealed have application to energy politics more broadly. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract This paper analyzes the ongoing transition to sustainable energy in Australia, moving from traditional large-scale plants to distributed renewable generation by studying the time series of coal and gas consumption as well as onshore wind and solar. Even though most of energy generation, especially in the form of electricity is currently being generated from coal and gas, a quantitative assessment of their evolution is necessary to understand whether, and to which extent, renewables are competing in the marketplace with conventional production means. A well-accepted innovation diffusion model is used to capture and interpret the underlying dynamics of the competitive transition in generation. The results show that renewables are exerting a competitive pressure on coal and collaborate with gas towards the transition. The view that gas should play a key role in transition is confirmed by our findings, because it is found to have a competitive role towards coal, while aiding the uptake of renewables. Highlights • Analysis of the ongoing transition to sustainable energy in Australia. • Study to understand whether renewables are competing in the marketplace. • A diffusion model used to capture the dynamics of the competitive transition. • Renewables exert a competitive pressure on coal and cooperate with gas. • Gas plays a competitive role towards coal, and aids the uptake of renewables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Australia is behind in the race of solar power generation. • The usual energy payback period of a solar panel is about 10–15 years. • Large portions of energy are wasted because of the low quality invertor. • A selection procedure should be followed to choose BIPV systems. • Reducing initial capital costs and raising public awareness are necessary. Buildings consume a large quantity of energy. In May 2010, the European Union (EU) reported that around 40% of their energy consumption was related to building sectors, which is similar to the proportion of 39% in the United States. In Australia, buildings count 20% of its total energy consumption. Experts across the globe have been working in the development of new technologies, which not only reduce the building energy consumption but also harness energy from renewable sources. Building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) system is one of the most popular techniques towards constructing a net-zero energy building through the utilisation of solar energy. In this review, we focus on the BIPV applications in Australia, where BIPV has not been prevailed as widely as might be expected despite the high solar irradiation in the country. This paper discusses recent advancements in BIPV systems and challenges that Australia is facing in order to adopt this technology. In addition, the current carbon emission issues in Australia are presented to build awareness among people, which will contribute towards adopting this technology. A range of experimental and numerical studies have been reviewed to identify the effectiveness of BIPV on building performances. This study also reports on the sustainability and economic feasibility of BIPV systems in terms of energy payback time and economical payback time, respectively. Based on this review, it is argued that BIPV is technically and economically feasible for Australia and its implementation might be started with solar roof tiles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Since the global warming and climate change are recognized as real concerns, attention of power system planners and operators, energy policy makers and regulators as well as developers around the world including Australia is focused on using alternative and low emission energy technologies for electric power production. Renewable energy and energy efficient technologies have many advantages including reducing climate change, increasing sustainability in power sector, and increasing security of power supply. This paper presents an overview on both current electricity grid and future grid. Experts believe that in future more distributed generation (DG) will be integrated into the low to medium electricity grid. This paper will also review the key drivers in relation to integration of increased DG technologies in general and the renewable energy-distributed generation (RE-DG) technologies in particular, into the electric power system and the opportunities and challenges linked to these technologies. This paper also reviews possible connection location of RE-DG into the grid and its impact on system voltage. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Over the past decade, several new approaches have emerged to renewable energy education that seek to address the needs of the 21st century for sustainable energy supply systems. In addition, unlike conventional architectural education which does not cover renewable energy issues in its curriculum, these days, renewable energy education has an identity of its own within the discipline of architecture. This paper will clarify academic obstacles that are impeding the development of sustainable architectural education. These obstacles include: ambiguous definitions of sustainable architecture, confusion over the meaning of sustainability, and lack of experts in this field. In the last part of this paper we compare academic architectural education in the field of renewable energy in two countries, Iran as a developing country in Asia and Australia as a developed country in Oceania. Lessons can be drawn from these case studies in regard to the obstacles and progress in the development of sustainable architecture education. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The claim of catastrophic man made climate change or global warming through anthropogenic CO2 has presently focused the interest on the tailpipe emissions of CO2 per km, with recent legislations obsessively targeting these emissions of CO2 with defectively implemented procedures. With a variety of different propulsion solutions (electric, hybrid electric, hybrid mechanic, conventional) and different fuels (Diesel, Petrol, alternative fossil, alternative renewable) available in the near future, a more comprehensive approach based on the full fuel cycle, and eventually also the full life cycle of the vehicle appear to be necessary. The paper is a contribution to trigger further improvement to currently implemented procedures. The paper discusses the CO2 emission data in the present form, some simple but effective measures to improve the accuracy of the data collection procedure, and propose results of fuel cycle CO2-e analysis of vehicles with electric and thermal engines having different fuels. Vehicles with advanced internal combustion engines and power trains fuelled with Diesel may reach CO2-e values of 100 g/km in Australia. Use of bio-ethanol in these vehicles may deliver in Australia a significant reduction of CO2-e emissions to values below 36 g/km. Emission factors for Victoria are presently 1.23 kg CO2-e/kWh for the purchased electricity and vehicles powered by electric motors will need a significant reduction of this indirect CO2-e emission to become competitive. Values below 0.5 kg CO2-e/kWh are needed to make electric cars competitive with Diesel cars while values below 0.1 kg CO2-e/kWh are needed to make electric cars competitive with bio-ethanol cars. Compared with all these alternatives, renewable hydrogen may possibly compete with Diesel when produced with renewable energy sources and made available at the pump for less than 0.1 kg CO2-e/MJ of fuel energy, and with bio-ethanol if produced and distributed at a cost below 0.02 kg CO2-e/MJ of fuel energy. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

A Net Zero Energy Building (NZEB) is a term, subject to ambiguity, that could be used to describe a building with characteristics such as equal energy generation to usage, significantly reduced energy demands, energy costs equalling zero or net zero greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Despite lacking an authoritative definition of NZEBs, this relatively new emerging concept in Australia provides significant opportunities to reduce GHG emissions, energy usage and operational energy costs for buildings owners. This paper aims to explore the existing NZEB models, assess the progression of NZEB literature, identify key policies encouraging NZEB development and recognise potential areas of NZEB research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The energy industry is undergoing significant disruption. This research outlines that, whilst challenging, this disruption is also an emerging opportunity for electricity utilities. One such opportunity is leveraging the developments in data analytics and machine learning. As the uptake of renewable energy technologies and complimentary control systems increases, electricity grids will likely transform towards dense microgrids with high penetration of renewable generation sources, rich in network and customer data, and linked through intelligent, wireless communications. Data digitisation and analytics has already impacted numerous industries, and its influence on the energy sector is growing, as computational capabilities increase to manage big data, and as machines develop algorithms to solve the energy challenges of the future. The objective of this paper is to address how far the uptake of renewable technologies can go given the constraints of existing grid infrastructure, and provides a qualitative assessment of how higher levels of renewable energy penetration can be facilitated by incorporating even broader technological advances in the fields of data analytics and machine learning. Western Australia is used as a contextualised case-study, given its abundance and diverse renewable resources (solar, wind, biomass, and wave) and isolated networks, making a high penetration of renewables a feasible target for policy makers over coming decades. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the least-cost greenhouse gas (GHG) abatement pathway for a coupled energy system. We consider the roles of diverse abatement technologies, such as renewable electricity generation, biomass and carbon capture and storage (CCS), as well as sources of operational flexibility, such as peaking generators, electricity storage, transmission and electrolysis. Scenario and sensitivity analyses are applied to explore plausible pathways to energy system decarbonization. All modelled pathways to a zero-emissions energy system feature an accelerating transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy with diverse technologies playing a role. This includes variable renewable generators (VRG), CCS, and sources of operational flexibility on different timescales. Specifically, synchronous condensers appear to be a cost-effective option to control system frequency, inter-seasonal hydrogen storage in engineered caverns can play a significant and complementary role to that of pumped hydro and battery storage, and technologies that capture and sequester atmospheric carbon, including biomass-to-CCS and direct air capture (DAC), can also play a significant role in the transition to net-zero emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Modern power systems are experiencing the challenge of high uncertainty with the increasing penetration of renewable energy resources and the electrification of heating systems. In this paradigm shift, understanding electricity users' demand is of utmost value to the retailers, aggregators, and policymakers. However, behind-the-meter (BTM) equipment and appliances at the household level are unknown to the other stakeholders mainly due to privacy concerns and tight regulations. In this paper, we seek to identify residential consumers based on their BTM equipment, mainly rooftop photovoltaic (PV) systems and electric heating, using imported/purchased energy data from utility meters. To solve this problem with an interpretable, fast, secure, and maintainable solution, we propose an integrated method called Interpretable Refined Motifs And binary Classification (IRMAC). The proposed method comprises a novel shape-based pattern extraction technique, called Refined Motif (RM) discovery, and a single-neuron classifier. The first part extracts a sub-pattern from the long time series considering the frequency of occurrences, average dissimilarity, and time dynamics while emphasising specific times with annotated distances. The second part identifies users' types with linear complexity while preserving the transparency of the algorithms. With the real data from Australia and Denmark, the proposed method is tested and verified in identifying PV owners and electrical heating system users. The performance of the IRMAC is studied and compared with various state-of-the-art methods. The proposed method reached an accuracy of 96% in identifying rooftop PV users and 94.4% in identifying electric heating users, which is comparable to the best solution based on deep learning, while the speed of the inference model is a thousand times faster. Last but not least, the proposed method is a transparent algorithm, which can tackle the concerns regarding the agnostic decision-making process when policies prohibit some machine learning methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite considerable mitigation efforts, global emissions from the electricity sector continued to grow in recent years. In Australia, the electricity sector is the largest CO 2 -emitting industry, contributing 35% of the country's total greenhouse gas emissions. The Australian government targets an 80% reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 relative to 2010. With a large variety and quantity of renewable energy resources, it is technically feasible and seems indispensable that Australia's electricity sector be largely decarbonised by 2050 in order to achieve this target. In this paper, scenario-based hybrid Life-Cycle Assessment is applied to calculate the economy-wide carbon footprints of seven electricity generation technologies in scenarios with differing renewable electricity penetration. This work is the first to apply a full life-cycle approach to scenario analysis of electricity generation in Australia. The findings are at the higher end of previously reported carbon footprint intensity ranges and above median values. However, even when taking into account indirect emissions along the technologies' life-cycles, the results indicate that the employment of different renewable energy technologies can potentially save a considerable fraction of Australia's greenhouse gas emissions. This makes renewables an essential option for climate change mitigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Residential or ‘rooftop’ solar PV can play an important role in providing renewable energy, thus offsetting fossil fuel based generation and associated greenhouse gas emissions. In Australia, subsidies are offered to encourage the deployment of residential PV in the form of Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs) and Feed-in Tariffs (FiTs). This paper provides a literature review of existing work which assesses renewable energy in Australia, and delves deeper into a residential PV specific analysis of available data across the five criteria of installation, employment, market maturity, FiT settings and environmental outcomes to assess successes, failures and impacts of Australian residential PV policies between 2001 and 2012. This analysis identifies overall success with regard to environmental and deployment goals, and limited success in the goal of renewable energy industry promotion, which is devoid of indigenous manufacturing. In addition, impacts, including the dominance of the FiT as the initial stimulus for rapid PV deployment, cost impacts on electricity bills for various FiT settings, and the dependence of PV employment numbers on the continuation of the FiT are also identified. Finally, inequitable outcomes due to the FiT, such as cross-subsidisation from non-solar to solar households are also detailed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper evaluates the economic feasibility of SPCC (solar-assisted post-combustion carbon capture) at a coal power plant near Sydney, Townsville and Melbourne for implementation in 2020. A review of Australia's carbon and renewable energy policy is performed first, after which the merits of application of each incentive for SPCC are compared. Incentives such as subsidies, preferential discount rate, carbon tax and RECs (renewable energy certificates) are evaluated. No single incentive on its own, and within reasonable limits, is able to provide a favourable economic performance for power plant based renewable powered CCS (carbon capture and storage). However, once the compounded effect of carbon tax and electricity price increase is taken into account, a carbon price as low as A$ 25/tonne-CO 2 and a REC price as low as A$ 35/MWh e is able to produce a positive net benefit in Townsville, while a slightly higher carbon price and REC price is required for Sydney. Melbourne performs poorest amongst the three locations, where substantially higher incentives would be needed for economic feasibility. The level of incentives required for SPCC to become feasible are found to fall in the range of current Australian policy incentives accessible to renewable energy technologies for stand-alone power generation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of oil in road transport contributes significantly to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in addition to rapidly depleting this non-renewable resource. Emissions can be greatly reduced by the total replacement of petroleum-based vehicles with electric vehicles using a combination of hydrogen and battery energy storage technologies. This paper analytically reviews the potential reduction in Australian road transport GHG emissions through the total replacement of petroleum-fueled vehicles with hydrogen and battery electrical vehicles by 2050. If electricity for hydrogen production & storage and battery charging is sourced from the national electricity grid, it is estimated that emissions can be reduced by between 56% and 73% in 2050 compared to the Australian Government’s Bureau of Infrastructure, Transport and Regional Economics (BITRE) projections, depending on the current range of government carbon price projections. Emissions can be reduced even further by supplementing grid electricity with standalone renewable electricity dedicated to hydrogen production and storage. It is found that there is more than sufficient renewable energy resources within Australia (particularly solar and wind) to meet the significant increase in the annual electricity generation that would be required to implement this strategy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anaerobic digestion (AD) of biomass has become a common technology used in many European nations and is receiving increased attention in other nations. The chief attraction of AD is it generates renewable energy. Yet it also manages and treats organic waste, recycles key nutrients to soil, and can create local jobs; making AD an attractive technology to governments. In this paper we review the role government policy has played in promoting AD use and driving its growth in five developed nations studied; Australia, Denmark, Germany, the UK and USA. These nations were chosen for review as they provide a breadth of AD use with the number of AD plants in the aforementioned nations totaling 78, 114, 9545, 265, and 1497. This review looks to demonstrate and discuss policy mechanisms introduced by each nation that has helped drive AD use, and identify areas where policy can help overcome enduring challenges that face the AD industry. Focused discussion is given to waste management, climate change and energy security policies, and to financial incentives made available to AD installations. Analysis shows that the impact of performance based incentives targeted at small-medium capacity AD plants, less than 500 kW, have a significant positive correlation with the growth of AD use in the UK and Germany. The relatively new AD industry faces a number of barriers, which are also discussed, but with the help of supportive government policy for the technology, that considers the wide-ranging benefits of AD across government portfolios; investors will be more likely to show interest in the developing AD industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To be sustainable in energy usage in the future, there are two aspects that need to be considered: the energy supply or generation and the consumption side, including the closely linked construction and building industries which consume a large amount of energy. Essential requirements for energy efficiency are to produce less greenhouse gas emissions and to rely more on renewable energy sources for future sustainability. Policies for mitigation of the environment impact are having effects on both the supply and demand. While the former requires more alternate sources in smart grids and improved technologies for carbon capture and storage, the latter involves the reduction of energy wastes and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions as prerequisites to green certification within the construction and building sector. Thus, access to sustainable, affordable, and secure energy is one of the major global strategic priorities to maintain and improve public health, sustain economic growth, and mitigate the effects of climate change. Toward this goal, many countries, including Australia, are investing in clean, efficient, reliable energy systems for a prosperous and environmentally sustainable future. Hence, exploring various options to ensure energy security by diversification of energy sources is an important step in meeting the future requirements and delivering clean energy to different industry sectors. This paper discusses options to manage the use of energy sources in the power generation and construction industries. Options for mitigation of environmental impact and for achievement of sustainable energy usage, such as building design with BIM, are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Asia-Pacific has experienced prodigious growth in energy use and is by far the world's largest greenhouse-gas emitting region. Australia has played a leading role in meeting the region's energy and resource needs, becoming the world's largest exporter of coal, liquefied natural gas, iron ore, and alumina. Our analysis shows that these exports are tied to sizeable consequential emissions at the point of use or processing, accounting for about 8.6% of the total greenhouse gas emissions of the Asia-Pacific. The paper investigates three pathways by which Australia could instead export zero-carbon energy and products: direct exports of renewable electricity via sub-sea cables, exports of zero-carbon fuels such as green hydrogen, and the export of "green" metals processed from Australian ores using renewable energy. Carrying out robust, high-level calculations we find that Australia has the land and renewable energy resources to become a key exporter of these commodities. Realization of this potential relies on ongoing cost reductions, growing demand-side interest linked to meeting ambitious emission reduction targets in the region, and the development of cross-border frameworks for clean energy trade. If it were to achieve this goal, Australia could make a sizeable contribution to regional decarbonization via renewable-energy based exports. • Consequential emissions from existing key Australian exports are estimated. • The potential for replacement zero-carbon exports from Australia is analyzed. • Land, water, and energy requirements for new zero-carbon exports are calculated. • There is the potential to reduce Asia-Pacific greenhouse gas emissions by about 8.6%. • Around 2% of Australia's land mass would be required for solar and wind farms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the cost-effectiveness of subsidies (feed-in tariffs and renewable energy credits) paid for by electricity consumers to support the uptake of roof top photovoltaic (PV) systems by households in Australia. We estimate annual payback periods, and then regress these against the actual uptake of household PV and associated emission reductions, creating a relationship not apparent in other research. Sensitivity analysis reveals that the declining cost of PV panels had most impact on PV uptake followed by feed-in tariffs, renewable energy credits and the increasing cost of household electricity tariffs. Our modelling shows that feed-in tariffs were higher than necessary to achieve the resultant levels of PV uptake and that the low cost of PV panels and comparatively high electricity tariffs are likely to result in a continuing strong uptake of household PV in Australia. Our modelling shows that subsidies peaked in 2011 and 2012, with payback periods of three to four years, having since increased to five to six years. Emission reduction costs are expected to reduce from over AU$200 per t CO 2 e in 2013 to between AU$65 and AU$100 per t CO 2 e in 2020. Household PV reduced Australia’s emissions by 3.7 million t CO 2 e in 2013 (1.7% of Australia’s total emissions) and is expected to reach eight million tonnes (3.7% of Australia’s total emissions) by 2020. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On-site, renewable energy supply systems have potential to create tangible economic and environmental improvements for the manufacturing industry. However, integrated energy supply and demand management is challenging due to the complex and dynamic nature of the problem. This paper presents a real-time operations management solution for integrating renewable energy into factories. A closed-loop and reactive control system is developed based on reliable models of energy supply options. An Australian industry case is used to demonstrate the validity and the practicality of the proposed solution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Australia's extensive solar resource is underexploited especially in the CSP (concentrating solar power) arena because of the high investment and lack of stable investment incentives. CSP hybrid plants provide an option to improve returns from CSP installations because of lower specific investment. This paper investigates the generation potential and most prospective regions for 5–60 MWe CSP hybrids using forestry residues, bagasse, stubble, wood waste and refuse derived fuels in locations with a direct normal irradiance >18 MJ/m2/day. Different plant efficiencies are used to identify the overall electricity potential for single and multiple feedstocks systems. The EfB (energy from biomass) or EfW (energy from waste) components of the hybrid plants considered are assumed to allow base load operation with the CSP components providing additional capacity during the day. The total CSP-EfB & EfW hybrid potential in Australia, within 50 km of existing transmission and distribution infrastructure, is 7000 MWe which would require an investment of AU$ 39.5b to annually generate 33.5 TWh. This is equivalent to 12.8% of all electricity generated in 2008–2009 or 74% of Australia's 2020 renewable energy target. The CO2 abatement potential of CSP-EfB & EfW hybrids is up to 27 Mt or 4.8% of all 2009–10 CO2 emissions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• Novel ensemble framework which improves short-term load forecasting accuracy. • Model divides the problem into several subtasks based on peak and off-peak conditions. • Classification and regression models were developed to solve each subtask. • Framework is validated on real-world operational demand across regions in Australia. • Model has a substantially higher accuracy (up to 25.4% in MAE) over other methods. [Display omitted] To keep the balance between electricity demand and supply as well as infrastructure planning, it is important to accurately forecast the electricity demand. This has become a challenging task due to increasing share of renewable energy and prosumers (i.e. consumers who produce electricity) in the electricity grid. This paper develops a cooperative ensemble framework which divides the forecasting problem into several subtasks based on peak and off-peak conditions. Each subtask is then solved using multiple forecasting models that include classification and regression. The developed framework is finally validated on real-world operational demand across the National Electricity Market (NEM) of Australia. The performance is comprehensively compared against various state-of-the-art techniques in the field, which indicates up to 25.4% mean absolute error (MAE) improvement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: As concerns about rising fossil fuel prices, energy security, and climate change increase, renewable energy can play a key role in producing local, clean, and inexhaustible energy to supply Australia’s growing demand for electricity, heat, and transportation fuel. Renewable energy is an essential part of Australia’s low emissions energy mix and this energy is important to its energy security. Australia has some of the best renewable energy resources in the world. This paper will focus on the impact of these renewable energies in Australia. This study shows that Australia has the potential to secure its long term energy future through focus and encouragement on increasing utilisation of renewable energy. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Australia has a very sunny climate, with a very high demand for air conditioning. Implementing solar assisted air conditioning is an ideal option to achieve a high solar fraction which leads to a significant amount of energy and greenhouse gas emission savings. Solar assisted air conditioning systems are environmentally friendly by being constructed in a way that minimises the need for chlorofluorocarbons CFC, Hydro chlorofluorocarbons HCFC or Chlorofluorocarbons HFC refrigerants and by using a low grade thermal renewable energy, therefore, making them energy efficient and environmentally safe. They can be used either as stand-alone systems or with conventional AC, to improve the indoor air quality. Solar cooling is a new and a fast growing technology compared to other fields of solar energy applications. On the other hand most of the current solar cooling applications are demonstration projects in nature; the technologies are advancing yet still need a lot of additional design, planning, development, and research efforts. T now solar assisted air conditioning''s main obstacles are the high installation costs, and the lack of knowledge and familiarity with this technology between designers, developers and architects. In this paper a feasibility study is carried out to assess a solar assisted air conditioning system for an office building under three of Queensland''s subtropical climates; Rockhampton, Gladstone, and Emerald. The technical aspects of a proposed solar cooling system are investigated. Cooling load profile for a proposed reference building was obtained using TRNSYS software under the influence of these different climates. An electric vapour compression pump, with 2.5 coefficient of performance (COP) for cooling is used as a reference system to assess the primary energy consumption, assuming 80% of primary energy consumed by the reference conventional system is replaced by solar energy. The results of analysing the proposed system indicated that an 80% of the primary energy savings can be achieved by installing 50 m2 of solar collectors and 1.8 m3of hot water''s storage tank under the three selected climates. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Climate change due to greenhouse gases emission from fossil fuels has prompted several governments to channel resources in the commercial utilisation of renewable energy sources. Solar energy is one of the renewable energy sources that is highly untapped and underutilized. Australia has the highest average solar radiation per square metre of any continent in the world. This paper will focus on the need to improve solar energy utilisation in Australia, challenges facing it and the future benefits. This study shows successfully storing and transferring solar energy will ensure that this energy source will make a significant contribution to Australia''s electricity grid supply in the future and Australia will be well positioned to assist in meeting its growing clean energy demand. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Domestic water heating in Australia conventionally uses electric resistance heating storage or gas fuelled water heaters. The Australian electricity supply has some of the highest greenhouse gas emissions factors in the world. Consequently, water heating is responsible for approximately 24 percent of residential sector greenhouse gas emissions in Australia. To assist households to move towards an energy efficient, low carbon future, a suite of market intervention programs to support solar hot water uptake have been introduced at both state and federal levels. These programs aim to improve the capacity of industry to deliver solar solutions, reduce the emissions intensity and net cost of household water heating, and increase the market share of the solar water heating sector. Incentives include: [•] Point of sale rebates and certificate-based programs for energy efficiency and renewable energy; [•] Regulations for new houses that encourage solar water heating installations; [•] Community awareness programs; and [•] Training programs for installers to ensure that tradespeople have the competencies to size systems and the skills to install them correctly. In some jurisdictions the incentive programs were performance-based, but in others a fixed rebate amount was available for all systems having performance above a minimum threshold. These programs have lead to the widespread expansion of the industry, with an almost doubling of the proportion of households with solar water heaters between 1999 and 2011. Installations in new homes have seen an even more marked increase: For example, regulations for new homes in the state of Victoria require the installation of a solar water heater or rainwater tank. This program has seen the adoption of solar water heaters in new homes increase fro m around 5% in 2004 to over 70% in 2011. Across most of Australia there are proposed regulations limiting the emissions intensity of replacement water heaters which will effectively ban resistance electric water heaters in most situations. Recently both South Australia and Queensland commenced their program for existing houses. It is expected that in the future these programs will drive an even greater uptake, which will go some way to insulating Australian households from price increases that may result from carbon driven future increases in the cost of energy. This paper discusses the various approaches and outcomes of the different programs and provides analysis of the basis of program success or improvements. Learning relevant to market interventions worldwide include [•] Continuity in program operation is necessary to allow industry to grow in a sustainable way. [•] Basing the incentive on independently derived performance results provides industry with a means of differentiating better products and provides purchasers with appropriate guidance. [•] Rebate program design should consider the consumer''s purchasing priorities. For example, a point of sale discount awarded as part of the purchase transaction aligns with the urgency of the purchasing process and does not require additional cash to be available from the purchaser. [•] Design of the schemes can not only produce a greater market share, but can also encourage the manufacture of lower greenhouse gas emissions products. [•] Market interventions can have unintended consequences, so the programs need to be monitored and flexibility maintained to changes to avoid poor outcomes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper presents results from a prototype renewable energy network optimisation model, which is driven with output from a high resolution mesoscale weather model of the current climate. The network model estimates potential power output for various combinations of wind and solar farms across a large domain of several hundred kilometres and calculates the required back-up power capacity needed to meet demand. The model finds the network configuration that minimises the cost of the system, and shows that considerably less installed capacity of both renewables and back-up is required if the choice of locations for wind and solar farms takes into account the covariance in the wind and solar fields. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Given the recent increasing public focus on climate change issues, there is a need for robust, sustainable and climate friendly power transmission and distribution systems that are intelligent, reliable, and green. Current power systems create environmental impacts as well as contributing to global warming due to their utilization of fossil fuels, especially coal, as carbon dioxide is emitted into the atmosphere. In contrast to fossil fuels, renewable energy is starting to be used as the panacea for solving climate change or global warming problems. This paper describes a feasibility study undertaken to investigate the potentialities of renewable energy including the prospective locations in Australia for renewable energy generation, in particular solar and wind energy. Initially, a hybrid model has been developed to investigate the prospects of wind energy for typical Australian region considering production cost, cost of energy, emission production and contribution from renewable energy using the Hybrid Optimization Model for Electric Renewable (HOMER), a computer model developed by the USA’s National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). This model also explores suitable places around Australia for wind energy generation using statistical analysis. Subsequently, the usefulness of solar energy in the Australian context and suitable locations for solar energy generation are also investigated using a similar hybrid model. Finally, the model has been developed to investigate the prospects of renewable energy in particular wind and solar energy including specific locations in Australia that would be suitable for both wind and solar energy generation. From simulation analysis it is clearly observed that Australia has enormous potentialities for substantially increased use of renewable energy; a large penetration of renewable energy sources into the national power system would reduce CO2 emissions significantly, contributing to the reduction of global warming. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Coal fired electricity is a major factor in Australia’s greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) emissions. The country has adopted a mandatory renewable energy target (MRET) to ensure that 20% of electricity comes from renewable sources by 2020. In order to support the MRET, a market scheme of tradable Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs) has been implemented since 2001. Generators using biomass from eligible sources are able to contribute to GHG emission reduction through the substitution of coal for electricity production and are eligible to create and trade RECs. This paper quantifies the potential biomass resources available for energy generation from forestry and agriculture in the Green Triangle, one of the most promising Australian Regions for biomass production. We analyse the cost of electricity generation using direct firing of biomass, and estimate the required REC prices to make it competitive with coal fired electricity generation. Major findings suggest that more than 2.6 million tonnes of biomass are produced every year within 200 km of the regional hub of Mount Gambier and biomass fired electricity is viable using feedstock with a plant gate cost of 46 Australian Dollars (AUD) per tonne under the current REC price of 34 AUD per MWh. These findings are then discussed in the context of regional energy security and existing targets and incentives for renewable energies. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Australia is one of those countries that are considered rich and abundant in fossil fuel energy resources. It is important for Australia to regulate the use of conventional energy and attempt replacing these conventional energies with renewable energy (RE) resources. Renewable energy resources in Australia are widely categorised as solar energy, biomass, wave energy and wind energy. By increasing the utilisation of renewable energy resources the national contribution to world wide green house gases (GHG) emissions would be reduced, at the moment approximately 50% of Australia''s GHG emissions are contributed from electricity generation [Dicks, AL, Diniz da Costa, JC, Simpson A, McLellan B. Fuel cells, hydrogen and energy supply in Australia. Journal of Power Sources 2004;1:1–12] with a large proportion of the remaining emissions coming from transport and vehicular sectors. As Australia''s population, as well as that of the world, continues to grow and live increasingly energy dependant lives, the future of energy supply will grow. This paper investigates the potential of renewable resources in Australia at present and the magnitude of their present and future contributions to the national energy consumption. Conclusions will be drawn from the results of this investigative scan and recommendations will be proposed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Thirty years ago in Australia, there was a significant research, development and demonstration programme in solar industrial process heating (SIPH). This activity was led principally by the Commonwealth Science and Industrial Research Organisation, the country’s main scientific research body. Other state government bodies also funded demonstration projects. Today, there is very little SIPH activity at any level in Australia. The contrast with the progress in other renewable energy technologies like wind and solar photovoltaic systems is striking. While the implementation of these technologies has progressed, SIPH has gone backwards. If Australia is to decarbonise its economy at the rate required, a massive deployment of solar thermal technology in those industries which use large quantities of low temperature hot water is also required. Recent developments nationally and internationally may rekindle new applications of solar thermal energy use by industry. This paper reviews the past achievements in SIPH in Australia and describes the lessons learned in order to better prepare for any new wave of SIPH activity. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper attempts to identify the types of renewable-based power generation technologies available in Australia that have the capacity to contribute to the growth of the renewable energy sector and then suggest what type of economic incentive instruments could be applied in order to stimulate investment in that sector. Currently in Australia there are hydro, wind, bioenergy, solar, geothermal and ocean technologies being used to produce renewable power. Of these all except hydro power has large amounts of potentially useful resources. In the cases of wind, bioenergy, solar, and geothermal, the technology is mature enough to be immediately deployed in large-scale. However, only in the cases of wind and bioenergy the costs and return on investments are proven to be viable in the current market. What is required on all fronts is an improved return on investments. Within the current electricity market competition with fossil-fuel based power is very difficult considering the ample supply of coal available in Australia and the heavy subsidies it receives. To become more competitive with electricity generated from coal-fired power plants, a feed-in tariff scheme could be implemented, and subsidies to the coal industry should be reduced if not removed. Another aspect impeding the growth of certain renewable power technologies is the high capital cost. This issue could be addressed with direct subsidies or tax exemptions, or aiding with easier access of finance options. However for particular industries such as wind and solar, it would be a further benefit if some effort is made to encourage component manufacturing within Australia. For technologies that require further technical development, funding towards R&D or pilot projects, and support for international collaboration projects would accelerate their path to deployment. It is critical that the Australian government continues to be a leader. In addition to the Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme (CPRS) and an extension to the Mandatory Renewable Energy Target Scheme (MRETS) proposed by the federal government, the Council of Australian Governments (CoAG) must work to streamline policies between the federal and state governments and the latter must apply policies unique to their region for what technology is prevalent. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]