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• Performance assessments quantify either abatement (AC) or transaction costs (TC). • We develop tools to quantify both AC and TC. • Socio-hydrology modeling of interconnected human and water systems is used to measure AC. • We develop a cutting-edge longitudinal dataset to assess future directions and magnitude of TC. • Results in the Douro Basin (Spain) show TC can represent 5.7 % − 8.3 % of total costs (AC + TC). • This highlights the need to account for AC and TC in performance assessments. Water reallocations have costs to the users of water, or abatement costs (e.g., charges designed to marginally increase environmental water flows), but also nontrivial institutional transaction costs (e.g., costs incurred to develop institutions and organizations to support and enforce environmental reallocations). However, institutional transaction costs studies are very limited and those available do not integrate abatement costs measurements, which constrains our ability to assess the performance of water reallocation. This paper presents the first integrated analysis of abatement and transaction costs of water reallocation. The analysis is illustrated with an application to the Douro River Basin, an agricultural basin in central Spain that has recently finished its second planning cycle (2015–2021). First, we use a hydroeconomic model that accounts for the two-way feedback responses between human and water systems to estimate the abatement costs of water reallocations, as well as their effectiveness in achieving the good ecological status of water bodies. Second, we measure and monetize realized institutional transaction costs of river basin planning over time and build on this cutting-edge longitudinal dataset to assess future directions and magnitude of transaction costs. We use this information to assess and rank the performance (through cost-effectiveness) of the water reallocations considered in the latest Douro River Basin Plan under alternative climate change scenarios. We find that under the hypothesis of stationary transaction costs, these can represent between 5.7% and 8.3% of the total reallocation costs (abatement plus transaction costs). This non-trivial magnitude highlights the need to account for both abatement and transaction costs when assessing the performance of water reallocations, and environmental policy overall. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The accumulation of human-derived waste on our coasts is an escalating phenomenon, yet the relative importance and potential interactions among its main drivers are not fully understood. We used citizen-science standardized collections to investigate how anthropogenic and environmental factors influence the level, composition, and temporal variation of beach debris. An average of 58 kg and 803 items/100 m, dominated by single-use items of land (rather than sea) origin, were collected in the 881 beaches sampled. Interactions between anthropogenic and environmental factors (e.g., human use × beach substrate) were the strongest predictors of beach debris, accounting for 34% of the variance explained in its amount and composition. Beach debris showed a highly stochastic temporal variation (adjusted R2 = 0.05), partly determined by interactions between different local and landscape anthropogenic pressures. Our results show that both environmental and anthropogenic factors (at the local and landscape scale) co-determine the level and composition of beach debris. We emphasize the potential of citizen-science to inform environmental policy, showing that land-originated single-use items dominate beach debris, and the importance of considering their multiple anthropogenic and environmental drivers to improve our low predictive power regarding their spatio-temporal distribution. [Display omitted] • Citizen science provided 881 collections from beaches in Spain during 10 years. • Land-originated single-use items dominate beach debris. • Environmental and anthropogenic factors co-determined beach debris composition. • Temporal variation is large and influenced by anthropogenic pressures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While economic and environmental policies and strategies are largely designed at the international, national or regional level, the environmental impacts of these measures are often felt at a more geographically-localized level. In particular, the effects on water resources, especially regarding water pollution and water stress, are usually localized in very specific hotspots. In this work, we acknowledge these facts and attempt to identify the linkages among the 17 regions in Spain (a semi-arid country with significant geographical variations in water availability), the European Union (EU), and the Rest of the World (RW), while also looking at the local effects of those interactions. In particular, we study the grey water footprints (a measure of the assimilation capacity of water resources) of production, at both the regional and business level, with spatially explicit information, and the extension of those footprints throughout the supply chain, while also computing the water footprints of consumption at the regional level. This process is a combination of a detailed computation of grey water footprints from production, from agriculture (from diffuse pollution), and from more general economic activities (from point source pollution), with a multiregional input–output model that encompasses the 17 Spanish Regions, the EU, and the RW. We also identify hotspots and vulnerable areas, linking the grey water footprints from production originating in these areas to final-consumer responsibilities. As an example of the potential of the combined methodology, we design and evaluate the effects on grey water footprints of scenarios of import substitutions in Spain. Our results show strong final demand in regions such as Madrid and Catalonia, and in net exporting regions such as Andalusia, Aragon, Castile and Leon, Castile-La Mancha, Extremadura, and Navarre. Some of these regions contain areas that are clearly vulnerable to nitrates and other pollutants, and parts of these regions, most obviously in Andalusia and Extremadura, suffer water stress, which leads us to question the sustainability of the relationships between the structure of production and trade and the environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Owing to its strategic nature, the Spanish energy policy is primarily the responsibility of the central state. In spite of this, the Spanish legal code does in fact also confer certain powers to territorial governments in Spain, the Autonomous Communities. The objective of this work is specifically to investigate the differences between the energy performance of Spanish regions, which may be a consequence of specific features of their productive structures and resource endowments, in addition to the specific decisions adopted by each of them within the scope for action that they have in this area. With this aim in mind, we intend to calculate the inefficiency levels of Spanish regions as regards their use of various energy sources during the period 2003–2008, by estimating an environmental directional distance function. The results obtained confirm the existence of significant differences in the behaviour and evolution of regional energy efficiency and point to the need to pay more attention to energy planning in this territorial sphere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses the effects of policy making for air pollution abatement in Spain between 2000 and 2020 under an integrated assessment approach with the AERIS model for number of pollutants (NO x /NO 2 , PM 10 /PM 2.5 , O 3 , SO 2 , NH 3 and VOC). The analysis of the effects of air pollution focused on different aspects: compliance with the European limit values of Directive 2008/50/EC for NO 2 and PM 10 for the Spanish air quality management areas; the evaluation of impacts caused by the deposition of atmospheric sulphur and nitrogen on ecosystems; the exceedance of critical levels of NO 2 and SO 2 in forest areas; the analysis of O 3 -induced crop damage for grapes, maize, potato, rice, tobacco, tomato, watermelon and wheat; health impacts caused by human exposure to O 3 and PM 2.5 ; and costs on society due to crop losses (O 3 ), disability-related absence of work staff and damage to buildings and public property due to soot-related soiling (PM 2.5 ). In general, air quality policy making has delivered improvements in air quality levels throughout Spain and has mitigated the severity of the impacts on ecosystems, health and vegetation in 2020 as target year. The findings of this work constitute an appropriate diagnosis for identifying improvement potentials for further mitigation for policy makers and stakeholders in Spain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the past decade, the Spanish cement production industry has experienced constant technological updates. Nevertheless, meeting current and future environmental policy goals requires extra efforts. The Spanish case is significant because cement production went down dramatically due to the last economic crisis. This brought an important, but temporary, reduction of CO 2 emissions. Therefore, there is an interesting opportunity for cement producers and policymakers to adjust the long-term targets. This work discusses the evolution of the cement industry in Spain from a realistic point of view using recent cement demand projections and the TIMES-Spain energy optimisation model. Several environmental-friendly options were implemented in TIMES-Spain following a literature review. These measures, aimed at contributing to the decrease of emissions to meet the established policy goals, include energy efficiency improvements, substitution scenarios (both for fuel and materials) and CO 2 capture (post-combustion and oxyfuel). From a policy approach, the deployment of the EU ETS Directive entails that CO 2 emissions from cement production will decrease by 8 Mt per year from 2030 with respect to the case without Directive. In a more technology-specific analysis, a remarkable decrease of 2–2.4 Mt CO 2 was obtained in the material substitution scenario beyond 2030. Additionally, taking into account current projections for cement demand, CO 2 capture technology does not emerge as a feasible option. Only if cement demand grew back to the pre-crisis level by 2050 and the CO 2 emission allowances remained fixed would the CO 2 capture via post-combustion start to be a reasonable alternative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) is a cornerstone of the European Union's policy to combat climate change and its key tool for reducing industrial greenhouse gas emissions cost-effectively. The purpose of the present work is to evaluate the influence of CO 2 opportunity cost on the Spanish wholesale electricity price. Our sample includes all Phase II of the EU ETS and the first year of Phase III implementation, from January 2008 to December 2013. A vector error correction model (VECM) is applied to estimate not only long-run equilibrium relations, but also short-run interactions between the electricity price and the fuel (natural gas and coal) and carbon prices. The four commodities prices are modeled as joint endogenous variables with air temperature and renewable energy as exogenous variables. We found a long-run relationship (cointegration) between electricity price, carbon price, and fuel prices. By estimating the dynamic pass-through of carbon price into electricity price for different periods of our sample, it is possible to observe the weakening of the link between carbon and electricity prices as a result from the collapse on CO 2 prices, therefore compromising the efficacy of the system to reach proposed environmental goals. This conclusion is in line with the need to shape new policies within the framework of the EU ETS that prevent excessive low prices for carbon over extended periods of time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cities are one of the main agents behind the introduction of electric vehicles. In Spain, cities could establish up to a 75% deduction on vehicle tax based on environmental issues. This paper analyzes those variables affecting the establishment of such a measure using the Probit model on a sample of 395 Spanish municipalities. The results show that the urban population, its dispersion, and the municipalities’ environmental commitment positively affect the establishment of such incentives, while the rural nature of the population and unemployment do exactly the opposite. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Most of the recent framework directives and environmental policies argue for the development and the use of indicators – notably trophodynamic indicators – that should be able to follow ecosystems’ evolution in space and time, particularly under anthropogenic perturbations. In the last decades, the use of stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes ratios has increased exponentially, particularly in studies of marine ecosystems’ trophic structure and functioning. This method is principally based on the assumption that the isotopic composition of a consumer directly reflects that of its food. Nevertheless, few studies have attempted to define the limits of this tool, before using it and drawing ecological conclusions from isotopic analysis. This study aimed to assess the importance of considering spatio-temporal variations in isotopic signatures of consumers when using δ 13C and especially δ 15N values in open ecosystems with complex food webs, using the Bay of Biscay (North-East Atlantic) as a case study. To this end, more than 140 species from this marine ecosystem were analysed for the isotopic signatures in their muscle tissue. They were sampled from coastal to oceanic and deep-sea areas and at different latitudes, to evaluate spatial variations of isotopic signatures. Selected species were also sampled over several years and in two seasons to account for inter-annual and seasonal variations. In the Bay of Biscay temperate ecosystem, which is subject to both coastal and oceanic influences – two main river inputs and upwelling areas – , δ 13C and δ 15N values significantly decreased from inshore to offshore species, and to a lesser extent from benthic to pelagic organisms. River discharges appeared to be the first factor influencing δ 13C and δ 15N values in consumers. From the important spatial variations detected in δ 15N values in particular, we suggest that in such contrasted ecosystem, nitrogen isotopic ratios may also be revisited as an indicator of the feeding area. Moreover, we demonstrate that several baselines should be used when calculating trophic levels from δ 15N values. From the temporal variations detected, we recommend concentrating on a short time scale for the sampling most organisms. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Airport capacity continues to be one of the air transport issues that creates the most concern. The major environmental constraint for airports is the noise generated by aircraft. Annoyed communities living around airports have become a limiting factor for airport capacity and operability. This paper brings together the existing literature in the fields of airport environmental capacity, non-acoustic factors of noise annoyance, NIMBYism and environmental conflicts. We also analyze the socio-environmental conflict between Barcelona airport and the community of Gavà Mar. This case shows that the lack of trust between parties, the impossibility of predicting noise exposure, the absence of opportunities for civil society to speak and the difficulty of accessing relevant information foster annoyance and mobilization in the communities that live around the airport. In addition, it is shown that, in such a situation, communities’ reactions can evolve to a post-NIMBY stage in which proactive attitudes replace reactive ones. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Introduction: Following the 2003 heat wave, many European countries implemented heat-wave prevention plans. A number of aspects can prove fundamental in determining the effectiveness of such plans, and of these we sought to analyse the criteria used to define threshold temperatures and trigger a higher level of intervention. Method: Retrospective study of the days on which heat-wave thresholds were exceeded during the period 1974–2003 was conducted. We compared when and at what level the heat-wave prevention plan would have been activated using a statistical–meteorological criterion (as applied by the Spanish Ministry of Health & Consumer Affairs) versus a temperature–mortality criterion. Results: The number of days on which the threshold was exceeded was far higher when the temperature–mortality criterion was applied. The temperature percentile at which a heat wave occurred was different for each province analysed and was inversely proportional to its respective ageing index. Using both criteria, there was an increase in heat-wave days per decade. Conclusion: The establishment of a heat-wave threshold temperature must be based on knowledge of the cause–effect relationship between temperature and the health of a given population. Mortality is an appropriate indicator of population health. The future effects of climate change render it essential for this relationship to be studied on a local scale, so as to enable truly efficient prevention plans to be drawn up. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Since the 1950s the Spanish Mediterranean mountains have undergone a process of population decline, abandonment of land by farmers, and a reduction in livestock pressure. These changes have involved pasture loss as a result of the spread of scrub and an increase in the incidence of fires. To avoid these negative outcomes the regional administration of La Rioja (Spain) has implemented scrub clearance programs. Between 1986 and 2005 a total of 23,668ha were cleared, particularly on abandoned fields where the processes of vegetation succession had led to the dominance of Genista scorpius and Cistus laurifolius. Pasture regeneration as a result of scrub clearing of areas dominated by G. scorpius has resulted in a productivity rise from 6666 to 12,983 Mj/ha/year, whereas productivity of areas dominated by C. laurifolius has risen from 2435 to 9741 Mj/ha/year. The clearing of scrub needs to be recognized as a significant factor contributing to the control of fire. Scrub clearing has had positive results in La Rioja, leading to a reduced incidence of fires in recent years. Between 1996 and 2005 only 155ha/year was burnt, compared with 1541ha/year over the period from 1976 to 1985. Scrub clearing appears to be an appropriate means of management in marginal mountainous areas without the need for large investments of time and money. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Transportation, energy and environmental tax reforms represent an ongoing debate in contemporary policy. The main aim of this paper is to shed some light on this debate using micro-simulation tools to analyse consumer response and welfare effects of environmental policy consisting of an increment of the indirect taxes on fuels to finance the elimination of VAT on the public means of transport. In order to do so, we first estimate an Almost Ideal Demand System for 16 different groups of goods in the Spanish economy, for the purpose of evaluating expenditure and price elasticities. Using this information, we then micro-simulate the abolition of VAT on public transport services and a simultaneous increment on fuel taxes, so that total revenue remains unchanged. The welfare effects of this revenue-neutral tax reform are evaluated. The aim of this simulation is to define a public policy that increases public transportation availability and use in order to bring about decreases in pollution and congestion. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

We explored the relationships among human attitudes towards biodiversity, its economic value and the public awareness for biodiversity conservation. Behavioural items and specific human attitudes to species were studied in the framework of a contingent valuation survey conducted in the Doñana National and Natural Park (SW Spain). Our analyses revealed a strong correlation between individuals’ attitudes towards particular species and their stated willingness to allocate funds for their conservation. Factors influencing individuals’ attitudes and willingness to pay are suggested. Overall, we found that the role of affective factors is much greater than the role of ecological-scientific considerations. Familiarity and biophilia factors had a marked effect on the attitude towards paying for biodiversity conservation. Since contingent valuation does not reveal the economic benefits of conserving certain key species; we propose that it should be combined with other non-monetary criteria derived from social-psychology and human ecology disciplines. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Metallothionein and metal content (Cd, Zn, Hg, Cu, Fe, Pb and Mn) were determined in various organs of commercially available eel (Anguilla anguilla) of similar size obtained from a local farm and from the Albufera Lake in Valencia (Spain). Farmed fish showed statistically significant higher Cd concentrations in liver and kidney whereas wild individuals had higher levels of Pb in blood and Zn in kidney. Significant positive correlations were found between metallothionein and Cd in kidney of farmed eel and between metallothionein and Cu in liver of wild ones. No statistically significant differences were found between the two populations in the concentration of any of the metals analyzed in muscle and in all instances these levels were lower than the limits established by the Spanish legislation for fish destined for human consumption. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The area of Castilla-La Mancha in central Spain is repeatedly visited by mineral dust incursions from the deserts of NW Africa. Such exotic atmospheric intrusions raise background PM10 levels, making urban areas much more likely to exceed daily limits of 50μgm−3 and become subject to fines under European environmental law. Data from a 3-year (2001–2003) study of hourly PM10 values demonstrate that average background dust levels in remote sites rise from 6–8μgm−3 when Atlantic-derived W/SW winds are blowing, to 24–7μgm−3 when African events take place. In four Castilla-La Mancha towns, numbers of exceedence days (ED: when PM10>50μgm−3) per year averaged 31 in Guadalajara (suburban site with annual daily PM10 average ADPM10=27μgm−3), 68 in Toledo (ADPM10=38μgm−3) and 139 in Albacete (ADPM10=47μgm−3; both urban sites), and 151 in Puertollano (industrial urban site with ADPM10=51μgm−3). Thirty-four percent of ED occurred during African dust incursions, and current law allows exclusion of such days from annual data (which also reduces the ADPM10 by 2–4μgm−3). Rather than simply excluding such days, a more scientifically satisfactory approach would be to allow subtraction of the estimated component of exotic background dust present daily at every urban monitoring station, and thus identify towns subject to high levels of locally derived anthropogenic PM10. Such an approach reduces ADPM10 values by the same amount as above (2–4μgm−3) if only African-derived PM10 values (as measured at remote background stations) are subtracted, although ΣED shows a relative increase. If, however, an attempt is made to estimate and subtract the total amount of exotic PM10 (i.e. not just African non-locally derived) at the four sites, this reduces the ADPM10 by 8–12μgm−3, and ΣED also drops significantly. Whichever approach is adopted, however, our data confirm that the legally allowable number of ED is far more strict than the annual limit value. This inconsistency will make it especially difficult for many southern European towns, with their abundant dry dust resuspension and regular incursions of African dust, to achieve PM exceedence targets in 2005. We argue that further refinement of aerosol pollution law is necessary to ensure that penalties for exceeding legally acceptable levels of atmospheric particulates are scientifically well founded and fair. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

We estimate demand curves for a one month reduction in waiting time for cataract surgery based on survey data collected in 1992 in Manitoba, Barcelona, and Denmark. Patients answered, "Would you be willing to pay [Bid, B] to reduce your waiting time for cataract surgery to less than one month?" Controlling for SES and visual status, Barcelonan patients have greater WTP for shortened waiting time than the Danes and Manitobans. We estimate the value (in 1992 $) of lost consumer surplus due to the cataract surgery queue at $128 per patient in Manitoba, $160 in Denmark, and $243 in Barcelona. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A methodology to assess energy flexibility of building clusters in a GIS framework. • Building clusters become energy prosumer by deep renovation and renewable energies. • It aims to integrate a wider spatial decision tool for environmental public policy. • Comfort thermal indexes quantify energy flexibility to measure peak load reduction. • Cluster design approach may help reduce investment costs and reach cost optimality. Natural resource depletion, global warming and pollution pose substantial threats in prioritizing environmental policy, both for private organizations and for governments. Half the EU building stock is prior to energy efficiency standards, thus making it an urgent challenge for the EU to aim at decarbonized cities by 2050. Urban energy retrofitting at cluster level represents a major opportunity, as its current rate is lower than an annual 1%, 3% being the EU desirable rate. This paper presents a bottom-up methodology to assess energy flexibility of building clusters within a Geographic Information System (GIS) framework, applied on a district scale. Energy performance certificates and GIS-based data permit diagnosis and neighborhood selection. The methodology evaluates building cluster energy flexibility via energy demand reduction and PV production. The results show the building cluster hourly load profile for heating and cooling, and thermal comfort indexes. It is expected that this GIS-based methodology will become part of a wider spatial decision support tool for environmental public policies contributing to building stock transformation, from energy consumer to prosumer through deep renovation and renewable energy use. Finally, this methodology is adaptable to other climates, particularly within Spain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• First-ever study to relate future Spanish environmental policies with EVs penetration. • The paper presents a novel methodology to reach a sustainable urban transport sector. • The limit power emissivity to hold a zero CO 2 emissions introduction of EVs is calculated. • A 100% renewable system will ensure a 77% CO 2 emissions reduction in Spain by 2040 due to EVs. Electric Vehicles (EVs) appear as an environmental solution for transport sector since they emit zero emissions while driving. Nonetheless, the carbon intensity (CI) of the energy sources involved in the electricity generation system could seriously compromise this solution. Hence, this study proposes a methodology to verify the sustainability of the sector by the introduction of EVs. By means of the "Well-to-Wheel" tool, it compares emissions generated by two fleets: one based on internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) and another one that also contemplates different EVs penetration levels. This methodology develops an iterative process on the contribution of renewable sources to the electricity generation system until a certain level of emissions reduction is achieved. The needed evolution of the CI for the electricity system is therefore deduced. The methodology has been applied to Spain by the mid-term future, given these country policies for both a high penetration of EVs and a progressive introduction of renewable sources in its electricity system. Results indicate that the current Spanish electricity mix allows for a reduction in CO 2 emissions by the introduction of EVs, but a 100% renewable system will be needed for reductions up to 74 million tons per year. This research is a first-ever study to relate the forecasted Spanish environmental policies, in terms of urban transport and configuration of the power system, with a sustainable introduction of EVs in the urban fleet. Hence, this paper would be very helpful for policy makers on evaluation of the requirements for a transport fleet electrification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]