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Abstract Sustainable expansion of aquaculture is critical to global food security, and bivalve shellfish aquaculture represents a sustainable method to provide people with affordable nutritious food. Oysters represent 54% of the global bivalve market by value, with propagation of juveniles within hatcheries critical to allow the industry to grow. Growth and survival of juvenile oysters in hatchery systems is constrained by suboptimal feed. The live algal feed currently used is expensive, of variable quality, contamination prone, and the high level of skill and equipment required limits where hatcheries can be located. We demonstrate how a novel microencapsulated diet can increase the growth and survivorship of Ostrea edulis (European flat oyster) juveniles in both the laboratory and hatchery setting. The microcapsules are easily produced in large quantities, stable for long term storage, and can be customised to have exceptionally high levels of nutrients key for oyster growth. O. edulis larvae fed a combined diet of microcapsules and algae for 8 days had a 46% greater increase in maximum size, 171% greater increase in minimum size, and 5% higher survival than larvae fed algae alone. O. edulis spat of 4 mm fed the combined diet for 7 weeks also had significantly greater survivorship (16% greater in hatchery, 58% greater in laboratory) and growth comparable (hatchery) or better (laboratory experiments) than algae alone. Further tailoring of the nutritional composition of microcapsules to specific bivalve species or growth stages could allow microcapsules to replace a greater proportion of or even completely replace algal diets. There is potential for these diets to revolutionise bivalve shellfish farming globally. Highlights • O. edulis juveniles fed diets containing microcapsules had greater growth and survivorship than juveniles fed algae alone • The microcapsules are easily produced at large scale, stable for storage, and rich in desirable nutrients for bivalve growth • Microencapsulated diets for bivalves could help increase bivalve production and contribute to sustainable food security [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inter-basin Water Transfers (IBWT) are recognized as one of the major pathways of freshwater invasion. They provide a direct link between previously isolated catchments and may modify the habitat conditions of the receiving waters such that they become more favourable for the establishment of invasive species. Combined, IBWT and invasive species will intensify the stress upon native species and ecosystems. Using the Severn and Thames Rivers –two of the largest river systems in Great Britain—as a case study, here we assess the potential influence of IBWT on the expansion of invasive species and thus their impact on biodiversity conservation. The Thames Valley is subject to extensive water abstraction, and an increasing population means that supplemented flow from the River Severn is being considered. Multi-scale Suitability Models, based on climate and water chemistry respectively, provided novel evidence that there is serious risk for further spread of invasive species in the focus area, particularly of the quagga mussel, a recent invader of the Thames River. Native freshwater mussels are particularly vulnerable to changing environmental conditions, and may suffer the decrease in alkalinity and increase in sedimentation associated with an IBWT from the lower Severn to the upper Thames. Regional models suggest considerable overlap between the areas suitable for three vulnerable native freshwater mussels and the expansion of invasive species that negatively impact upon the native mussels. This study illustrates the use of novel spatially-explicit techniques to help managers make informed decisions about the risks associated with introducing aquatic invasive species under different engineering scenarios. Such information may be especially important under new legislation (e.g. EU Invasive Species Regulation No 1143/2014) which increases the responsibility of water managers to contain and not transfer invasive species into new locations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Litterfall is an important resource subsidy for lake ecosystems that primarily accumulates in littoral zones. Bivalves are abundant within littoral zones and may modify the effects of terrestrial resource subsidies through trophic interactions and engineering their surrounding habitat. Leaf inputs to lakes and freshwater mussel abundances are changing throughout the boreal ecoregion so we set out to investigate how the co-occurring benthic community might respond. We set up an in situ mesocosm experiment in Ramsey Lake, Sudbury, ON, Canada. Mesocosms contained sediments of either 5% or 35% terrestrial organic matter (tOM), into which we placed mussels ( Elliptio complanata ) at differing densities (0, 0.4 and 2 mussels m − 2 , with a sham mussel treatment at 0.4 mussels m − 2 ). Over one month we recorded the sediment chemistry (dissolved organic carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus), littoral organisms (benthic algae and zooplankton) and mussel growth. At high mussel densities we recorded a 90%, 80%, 45% and 40% reduction in phosphorus, dissolved organic carbon, nitrogen and benthic diatoms, respectively, whereas at low mussel densities we observed a 3-fold increase in zooplankton. We discuss that these results were caused by a combination of bioturbation and trophic interactions. Benthic diatom concentrations were also reduced by 20% in sediments of 35% tOM, likely due to shading and competition with bacteria. Mussel growth increased at high mussel densities but was offset at high tOM, likely due to the organic matter interfering with filter feeding. Our results suggest that mussels can alter the geochemical composition of sediments and abundances of associated littoral organisms, in some cases regardless of tOM quantity. Therefore, the dominant top-down control exerted by freshwater mussels may outweigh bottom-up effects of tOM additions. Generally, our study reveals the importance of considering dominant species when studying the effects of cross-ecosystem resource fluxes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Climate change and invasive species are two major biodiversity threats expected to provoke extinctions of many species in the future. This study evaluates the joint threat posed by climate change and two invasive species: the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) and the signal crayfish (Pacifastacus leniusculus), on the distribution of two endangered freshwater species: the depressed river mussel (Pseudanodonta complanata) and the white-clawed crayfish (Austropotamobius pallipes), at the scale of Europe. We expected the native species to experience a gradual contraction over time in their geographic range size, while the invasive species would maintain or increase their spread; therefore, their overlap would increase, further threatening the conservation of the native species. To test these three hypotheses, ensemble species distribution models (SDMs) were calibrated with current distributions and projected onto present and 2050 future climatic scenarios. In agreement with our expectations, the 2050 scenarios suggested D. polymorpha may strongly benefit from climate changes (increase of 15–20% in range size), while the depressed river mussel would experience a considerable loss (14–36%), the overlap between both mussels increasing up to 24%. Although both crayfishes were predicted to be negatively affected by climate changes, the contraction was more severe for the invasive P. leniusculus (up to 32% decrease in range size). Moreover, the overlap between both crayfishes decreased by 13–16%, which may reduce the pressure upon the native A. pallipes. This study illustrates how SDMs can assist in management of endangered species over large spatial and temporal scales by identifying current and future areas of shared bioclimatic suitability and potential refugia. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Algal biofuel production offers great potential as a sustainable source of bioenergy without competing for arable land with food crops. However, many challenges must be overcome to enable this to be done commercially at the scale required to produce biofuels. Here we explain how an understanding of algal ecology could lead to more reliable raceway-based microalgal cultivation, drawing from established principles of community ecology to highlight practices that could be applied to protect algal cultures from unwanted contaminants. Using theoretical concepts, we show how an understanding of local community dynamics at the species level might be used to enhance productivity by encouraging certain community structures over others. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The toxic effects of low level metal contamination in sediments are currently poorly understood. We exposed different sized Asian clams, Corbicula fluminea, to sediment spiked with environmentally relevant concentrations of either zinc, cadmium or a zinc–cadmium mixture for one week. This freshwater bivalve is well suited for sediment toxicity tests as it lives partly buried in the sediment and utilises sediment particles as a food resource. After one week, the whole tissue composition of low molecular weight metabolites was analysed by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). The condition index (ratio of tissue dry weight to volume inside the shell valves) was also measured. Small and large clams were clearly differentiated by their metabolic composition and the two size classes showed opposite responses to the mixture spiked sediment. No effects of zinc alone on the metabolome were found and cadmium only influenced the smaller size class. The main perturbations were seen in amino acid and energy metabolism, with small clams using amino acids as an energy resource and larger clams primarily drawing on their larger storage reserves of carbohydrates. Our study demonstrates that metabolomics is a useful technique to test for low level toxicity which does not manifest in mortality or condition index changes. The differing effects between the two size classes stress that it is important to consider age/size when conducting metabolomic and ecotoxicology assessments, since testing for the effects on only one size class makes it more difficult to extrapolate laboratory results to the natural environment. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) is a notorious freshwater biofouling pest, and populations of the species can alter aquatic environments through their substantial filtration capabilities. Despite the ecological importance of zebra mussel filtration, many predictions of their large-scale effects on ecosystems rely on extrapolations from filtration rates obtained in static laboratory experiments, not accounting for natural mussel densities, boundary layer effects, flow rates or elevated algal concentrations. This study used large-scale industrial flume trials to investigate the influence of these factors on zebra mussel filtration and proposes some novel industrial applications of these findings. The flume trials revealed some of the highest zebra mussel clearance rates found to date, up to 574±20mlh−1 g−1 of wet tissue mass. Under low algal concentrations, chlorophyll a removal by zebra mussels was not proportional to mussel density, indicating that field rates of zebra mussel grazing may be much lower than previous studies have predicted. Increasing ambient velocities up to 100mls−1 (∼4cms−1) led to increased clearance rates by zebra mussels, possibly due to the replenishment of locally depleted resources, but higher velocities of 300mls−1 (12cms−1) did not lead to further significant increases in clearance rate. When additional algal cultures were dosed into the flumes, chlorophyll a removal increased approximately logarithmically with zebra mussel density and there were no differences in the clearance of three different species of alga: Ankyra judayi, Pandorina morum and Cyclotella meneghinia. Some novel industrial uses of these zebra mussel filtration studies are proposed, such as: (1) helping to inform models that predict the large-scale grazing effects of the mussels. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper reviews the current, apparently rapid spread of zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) in Britain, discusses the possible causes of this spread, considers the potential ecological consequences, and looks at what measures could be undertaken to minimise the impacts of zebra mussels and other invasive pests in Britain''s freshwaters. Five out of 27 major water companies reported increases in their regions between 2000 and 2002 and a further three acknowledged their presence. Increases were also reported by the Environment Agency, Broads Authority, angling clubs and boatyards. No one interviewed reported a decrease in zebra mussels between 2000 and 2002. The most notable increases have been in southern, central and eastern England. A newly recorded population of zebra mussels in the River Darent, Kent, contained zebra mussels in dense mats of up to 11,000 individuals m-2 and up to 20 cm in depth. There is evidence that the ecology of recently invaded sites has been deleteriously affected. A fishing lake in Lancashire has experienced increased water clarity and reduced fish biomass coincidental with the arrival of zebra mussels, while a newly recorded population in Barden Lake, Kent, appears to be having a deleterious impact on native unionid mussels, particularly the swan mussel (Anodonta cygnea) and, more, recently the painter''s mussel (Unio pictorum). Repeated surveys in the River Thames, River Great Ouse and Barden Lake showed that the proportion of unionid mussels infested by zebra mussels had increased significantly in all sites studied during the past one to five years. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• Quagga mussels may affect biotic and abiotic characteristics of invaded reservoirs. • Quagga mussel establishment led to reduced cyanobacteria and diatom abundance. • Aphanizomenon sp. abundance decreased in quagga mussel invaded reservoirs. • Soluble reactive phosphorus concentrations increased in invaded reservoirs. • Changes in nutrients and phytoplankton communities may affect reservoir management. Invasive quagga mussels (Dreissena rostriformis bugensis) are an emerging threat to the functioning and management of freshwater ecosystems. Quagga mussels were first recorded in the UK in 2014 and have subsequently established at high densities in a number of major reservoirs. Through implementing a Progressive-Change BACIPS (Before-After-Control-Impact Paired Series) analysis, we found that the following trends were observed following quagga mussel establishment: reduced diatom and cyanobacteria abundances; increased soluble reactive phosphorus and reactive silica concentrations; and reduced abundances of Aphanizomenon sp., a potentially toxic cyanobacterium. We also found reservoirs with established quagga mussel populations experienced slightly increased overall chlorophyll a concentration but no changes in turbidity or Microcystis sp. abundance, which are often considered common indicators of dreissenid invasion. Our results show that Progressive-Change BACIPS analysis is a powerful tool which can be used to interrogate industry standard long-term datasets of water quality metrics in order to identify and quantify the impacts of invasive species when the approximate timeframe of species arrival is known. We also demonstrate that quagga mussels may have had significant effects on reservoir ecosystems which, primarily through their impacts on phytoplankton communities, may have implications for reservoir management. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The expansion of Invasive Alien Species (IAS) is a growing concern to the UK water industry because of their diverse impacts on water quality, infrastructure and eradication costs. New regulations reinforcing the industry's responsibilities beyond operational costs, coupled with continued range expansion and establishment of new IAS will increase damages. To tackle IAS effectively, the water industry requires reliable information about which species pose the greatest risk to operations and which areas are most vulnerable to invasion. Here we assess potential biosecurity threats for the 24 water companies in the UK using well-established modelling research techniques such as risk assessment and distribution modelling. Using a consensus approach with environmental managers and water companies, we identified 11 IAS of concern for the UK water industry, including five plants, three crustaceans, two molluscs and one fish. These invaders pose important hazards in terms of water quality, flood protection, human health, integrity of infrastructures, recreational and aesthetic values, amongst others. We used distribution models to predict their potential expansion under current and future 2050 climate scenarios within each of the 24 water companies in the UK. Water companies in the South East of England (Cambridge Water, Anglian Water, Affinity Water and Thames Water) are under the highest risk of invasional meltdown from multiple IAS, both now and under future scenarios. The quagga mussel poses the most serious risk of immediate spread and may exacerbate the impacts of the widespread zebra mussel for the water industry. The information generated in this study can support the prioritization of species and regions at risk, so that funds for prevention and eradication of invasions are well allocated. Ultimately, this study demonstrates that scientific risk assessments, usually restricted to the academic and public sectors, can be extremely useful to guide decision-making by the private sector. Image 1 • Invasive Alien Species cause important changes in water quality. • We identified 11 IAS of concern to the water industry through a consensus approach. • We modelled their potential expansion under current and future climate scenarios. • Water companies in the SE of England will bear the highest costs of control of IAS. • Our approach can cost-effectively prioritize species and regions at risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graphical abstract Highlights • Annual growth, growth constants, and asymptotic lengths increased downstream. • Rising summer, spring, and winter temperatures positively affected mussel growth. • Rising autumn temperatures negatively affected annual mussel growth. • Growth and temperature relationships suggest that annuli can document climate. • Unio tumidus may be the best species to document long-term temperature changes. Abstract Sclerochronology provides an important and widely used tool to examine annual environmental patterns in marine systems, but few similar tools have been developed to establish ecological indicators in freshwaters on a seasonal scale. Previous work using marine mussels as ecological indicators have practiced shell ashing, acetate peels, and thin sectioning, all of which destroy the specimens. We studied the external annual rings of three freshwater mussel species with clear annual bands from the River Medway, UK, in order to non-invasively investigate the relationship between banding patterns, growth parameters, location, and seasonal water temperatures. We tested the accuracy and precision of this method through repetition of measurements and the reproduction of results through separate agers. Overall, mussels living downstream had higher length-at-age curves, asymptotic lengths (L ∞), and growth constants (k) than those living upstream. In Unio pictorum and Unio tumidus , there was a negative relationship between asymptotic lengths and growth constants, indicating that larger asymptotic lengths took more time to reach. Unio tumidus had the highest asymptotic lengths and the lowest growth constants across sites while Unio pictorum had the lowest asymptotic lengths and the highest growth constants across sites. Anodonta anatina showed simultaneously increasing asymptotic lengths with increasing growth constants and had the highest overall lengths of all three species. Summer water temperatures had the largest positive effect on annual growth, followed by spring and winter water temperatures, while autumnal temperatures had a negative impact on growth. The findings of this study suggest that through their annual banding, freshwater mussels can be used as tools to document historical water temperatures, especially in the warmer months of spring and summer, and can therefore serve as powerful indicators of spatial and temporal patterns in water temperature. Such tools can help infer palaeoclimatic conditions from fossil and subfossil shells, establish baselines for understanding future climatic change, and support conservation efforts aimed at protecting temperature-sensitive taxa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The invasion of zebra mussels, Dreissena polymorpha , into Western Europe and North America has driven widespread ecological change. Attachment of zebra mussels to the shell of native unionoid mussels has resulted in reductions in unionoid abundance and, in extreme cases, their localised extirpations. While the impacts of zebra mussels on infested unionoids are well documented, the possible benefits of the association to the zebra mussel have been little considered. We collected zebra mussels attached to unionoids and to inanimate structures. Zebra mussels attached to unionoids had significantly larger shells, higher standardized body mass and glycogen content than those attached to inanimate substrates, suggesting that D. polymorpha benefits from settling upon unionoids. The body condition of individual zebra mussels was negatively correlated with the number of zebra mussels attached to the unionoid, indicating intraspecific competition. Therefore, zebra mussels seem positively affected through attachment to unionoid mussels, but that these benefits decrease at higher densities of fouling. This association may offer advantages to the spread of zebra mussels within unionoid-rich systems, especially at sites with soft substrates and at the early stages of the invasion process where intraspecific competition is likely to be lower and benefits to the zebra mussels are higher. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plastic contamination is an increasing environmental problem in marine systems where it has spread globally to even the most remote habitats. Plastic pieces in smaller size scales, microplastics (particles <5 mm), have reached high densities (e.g., 100 000 items per m 3 ) in waters and sediments, and are interacting with organisms and the environment in a variety of ways. Early investigations of freshwater systems suggest microplastic presence and interactions are equally as far reaching as are being observed in marine systems. Microplastics are being detected in freshwaters of Europe, North America, and Asia, and the first organismal studies are finding that freshwater fauna across a range of feeding guilds ingest microplastics. Drawing from the marine literature and these initial freshwater studies, we review the issue of microplastics in freshwater systems to summarise current understanding, identify knowledge gaps and suggest future research priorities. Evidence suggests that freshwater systems may share similarities to marine systems in the types of forces that transport microplastics (e.g. surface currents); the prevalence of microplastics (e.g. numerically abundant and ubiquitous); the approaches used for detection, identification and quantification (e.g. density separation, filtration, sieving and infrared spectroscopy); and the potential impacts (e.g. physical damage to organisms that ingest them, chemical transfer of toxicants). Differences between freshwater and marine systems include the closer proximity to point sources in freshwaters, the typically smaller sizes of freshwater systems, and spatial and temporal differences in the mixing/transport of particles by physical forces. These differences between marine and freshwater systems may lead to differences in the type of microplastics present. For example, rivers may show a predictable pattern in microplastic characteristics (size, shape, relative abundance) based on waste sources (e.g. household vs. industrial) adjacent to the river, and distance downstream from a point source. Given that the study of microplastics in freshwaters has only arisen in the last few years, we are still limited in our understanding of 1) their presence and distribution in the environment; 2) their transport pathways and factors that affect distributions; 3) methods for their accurate detection and quantification; 4) the extent and relevance of their impacts on aquatic life. We also do not know how microplastics might transfer from freshwater to terrestrial ecosystems, and we do not know if and how they may affect human health. This is concerning because human populations have a high dependency on freshwaters for drinking water and for food resources. Increasing the level of understanding in these areas is essential if we are to develop appropriate policy and management tools to address this emerging issue. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The expansion of mussel aquaculture is limited by the availability of spat and production on land is dependent on costly cultures of microalgae as feed. Substitution of algae with microencapsulated feeds can reduce feed contaminations, ease the storage and extend the shelf life, ensuring stable production of consistent quality at sustainable costs. This study investigated the effects of the substitution of commercial preserved microalgal concentrates (A) with different inclusion levels of Schizochytrium- microencapsulated feed (BioBullets, B) for Mytilus galloprovincialis spat: no substitution, A (100%A; 0%B); low substitution, ABL (40%A; 60%B); medium substitution, ABM (20%A; 80%B); complete substitution, B (0%A; 100 %B). For 8 weeks, spat of <1 cm were cultured under dietary treatments and survival, growth, condition index, digestive gland atrophy and adipogranular cell index were compared, using spat unsupplemented with any feeds as negative control (NC). Diet had a significant effect on spat growth and tissue biochemical and fatty acid composition, demonstrating the assimilation of microencapsulated diets. Spat growth was positively correlated with dietary and spat tissue protein, monounsaturated fatty acids and eicosapentaenoic acid content and was highest in spat fed A and ABL. <10% dietary proteins equally sustained M. galloprovincialis spat growth through dietary replacement with higher proportions of lipids (x3) and carbohydrates (x2). With manufacturing improvements, 60% substitution of preserved microalgal concentrates by microencapsulated Schizochytrium can be considered in attempting to enhance economic feasibility in spat production. • This study investigated the effect of different inert diets supplemented to Mytilus galloprovincialis spat for 8 weeks, by assessing the growth, fatty acids and proximal composition change. • Dietary treatments had a significant effect on spat growth and tissue composition and proved the assimilation of microencapsulated diets in Mytilus galloprovincialis spat. • <10%-dietary protein can be sustained by M. galloprovincialis spat through dietary replacement of higher lipids and carbohydrates. • Up to 60% substitution of commercial preserved microalgal concentrates by microencapsulated Schizochytrium can be considered in attempting to enhance economic feasibility in seed production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Invasive non-native species (INNS) with marine or brackish origins have become increasingly common occupying freshwater habitats. The transition of INNS from marine or brackish water into physiologically stressful freshwater environments may be facilitated by compensatory growth and elevated feeding rates. In this study, we investigate the capacity of the Gulf wedge clam (Rangia cuneata), a brackish NNS that is spreading quickly across European waterways, to survive in freshwater conditions and consider its resultant impacts as an ecosystem engineer. To investigate the performance of R. cuneata under freshwater conditions, we compared the population structure, the physiological condition, and the growth of R. cuneata collected from its distributional limits in Great Britain. Feeding rate of R. cuneata was quantified by conducting a reciprocal transfer experiment with a two-way factorial design on individuals obtained from the freshwater and saline extremes. R. cuneata density was almost 10-fold higher at its most saline distributional limit (213 individual m−2, 3.1‰) compared to its most freshwater limit (22 individuals m−2, 1.2‰). The impaired physiological condition (18.7% lower relative soft tissue mass and 26.4% lower shell mass) and the lack of juvenile individuals also suggests that the R. cuneata inhabiting the freshwater extreme may not be able to maintain a persistent population over the long term. Although R. cuneata at its freshwater extreme were under stress, the per capita impacts caused by these individuals were not weakened at the suboptimal conditions, evidenced by their elevated growth and over four times as high relative clearance rate (0.28 L−1 g−1 h−1) compared to those from the saline limit (0.06 L−1 g−1 h−1). This study demonstrates that under suboptimal conditions, the physiological responses of INNS may result in elevated per capita effects which may lead to unexpected or under-estimated impacts on recipient ecosystems. Unlabelled Image • Invasive alien brackish Rangia cuneata can survive in freshwater conditions. • Clams in the freshwater site are under physiological stress. • Elevated growth and feeding rates were found in clams from the freshwater site. • The per capita impact from R. cuneata was >4× higher in suboptimal conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We identified emerging scientific, technological, and sociopolitical issues likely to affect how biological invasions are studied and managed over the next two decades. Issues were ranked according to their probability of emergence, pervasiveness, potential impact, and novelty. Top-ranked issues include the application of genomic modification tools to control invasions, effects of Arctic globalization on invasion risk in the Northern Hemisphere, commercial use of microbes to facilitate crop production, the emergence of invasive microbial pathogens, and the fate of intercontinental trade agreements. These diverse issues suggest an expanding interdisciplinary role for invasion science in biosecurity and ecosystem management, burgeoning applications of biotechnology in alien species detection and control, and new frontiers in the microbial ecology of invasions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Biological invasions currently pose major threats to ecosystems worldwide. Invasive bivalves such as the Golden Mussel Limnoperna fortunei can act as ‘environmental engineers’, altering biogeochemistry, reducing biodiversity, and literally changing the landscape of aquatic environments. The risk that this mussel will invade the Amazon basin is a great concern for environmental authorities, especially because no efficient control methods presently exist. In this study, we tested new microencapsulated chemicals, along with the traditional dissolved chlorine and KCl, as alternatives to control L. fortunei infestation in industrial and water supply plants along rivers. Because these bivalves can close their valves when they sense toxic substances in the water, microencapsulation has improved the effectiveness of the chemicals in controlling L. fortunei, reducing variation in the application and increasing toxicity compared to dissolved chemicals. Microencapsulation should be seriously considered as an alternative to replace hazardous chlorine. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]