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• Cognitive psychology principles are used to explain task switching during driving. • Cognitive overload and underload impair subsequent driving performance. • Attentional switch costs following a takeover response can persist for 5 min. • Suggestions are given for improving the safety of Level 3 automated driving. As the semi-automation of motor vehicles advances, the prevalence of multitasking and task switching while driving has increased. In the next phase, known as conditional automated driving (level 3 automation), drivers will be able to fully engage in distracting tasks, yet they must be prepared to promptly resume control of the vehicle and maintain safe driving if requested to by the vehicle. In such situations, the driver's ability to flawlessly switch between the distracting task and the driving task becomes vitally important. This narrative review discusses conditional automated driving within the framework of cognitive psychology concepts of attention and task switching. Delayed reaction time and deteriorated driving performance are attributed to cognitive overload and switch cost. Factors that contribute to driving switch cost are identified and categorized, and several road safety concerns are raised, including: i) switch cost may last for between 20 s to 5 min; ii) inexperienced drivers may be unable to adequately control the vehicle after resuming manual control; and iii) low- and high-intensity non-driving tasks have a greater impact on takeover performance. To minimise the risk to road safety, suggestions have been provided to vehicle manufacturers, road users and regulatory authorities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Cognitive load affects experts' and non-experts' longitudinal and lateral performance. • Expert and non-expert drivers do not differ in secondary task performance. • The relationship between driving expertise and cognitive load is task-dependent. • Effects of cognitive load and expertise appear to vary with different curve types. The role of expertise in the relationship between cognitive load (CL) and driving performance has received little scientific attention. This real-world study included 8 expert race car drivers and 10 non-expert drivers, who were driving on a racetrack while simultaneously performing cognitively distracting secondary tasks. The experiment examined whether the effects of CL on high-speed driving performance of hairpin, compound, and reverse curves are influenced by drivers' expertise. In general, we found that non-expert drivers were not any more vulnerable to CL-induced performance decrements than skilled expert drivers, although the relationship between driving expertise and CL appeared to be task- and curve type-dependent. While between-group differences in secondary task performance were not obtained, speed was found to decrease in CL conditions but only in sharp hairpin curves. Additionally, CL affected experts' and non-experts' lateral performance in all curve types, although a clear relationship between trajectory deviations and steering corrections was not obtained. While the effects of CL appear to be the most prominent in sharp hairpin curves, the findings of this study suggest curve geometry as a variable that needs greater attention in future studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A left-turn lane requires a transition area for smooth traffic flow, yet the use of dotted extensions remains uncertain. • The dotted extension helps drivers focus, reducing the need to divert visual attention to surrounding vehicles. • The dotted extension aids through-traffic drivers in maintaining focused attention on critical driving information. When adding an exclusive left-turn lane at an intersection, a transition area is needed to allow through and left-turn traffic to move into appropriate lanes smoothly. However, whether a dotted extension should be applied at such a transition area remains inconclusive. The need for recommending a dotted extension is further complicated at intersections where an approach taper partially shadows a left-turn lane. This study aims to shed light on whether dotted extensions should be recommended in a transition area and research the impacts of dotted extensions on guiding drivers from their perspectives. Scenarios with and without dotted extensions were created for a video-viewing experiment. Driver eye movement behavior and cognitive load rating served as evaluation indicators in each target scenario. Thirty participants were recruited and randomly assigned to with and without dotted extension groups. Results show that: (1) With the dotted extension, participants could focus on fewer objects and, therefore, would not need to divert their visual attention toward the surrounding vehicles. (2) The dotted extension assists through-traffic drivers in maintaining more focused attention on information critical to their driving task. (3) Dotted extensions help drivers reduce stress, mainly because of clearer indications of lane configuration. Altogether, our findings suggest that a road with dotted extensions provides better guidance in a transition area than one without dotted extensions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Design factors considered in the study affect visual cognition of stacked signs. • High Amount of information and bilingualism increase reaction time to stacked signs. • Language used is a top priority and deserves consideration. • Separating lines only make sense in complex messages with a lot of information. Stacked directional signs are widely used on Chinese roads, but research on them is relatively scarce. This study aimed to investigate the effects of the Language used, Layout format, Amount of information, and use of Separating lines on the visual cognition of stacked directional signs. A visual cognition experiment involving thirty-two drivers was conducted, and the reaction time and response accuracy were recorded. The results revealed that a greater Amount of information was correlated with increased visual cognition reaction times. Bilingual signs exhibited significantly greater reaction times compared to monolingual counterparts, while a simpler Layout format resulted in shorter reaction times. The Language used, Amount of information, Layout format, and use of Separating lines were in decreasing order of importance for visual cognition reaction time, with a high Amount of information having the greatest effect. The implications of these findings can be applied to the design and optimisation of stacked directional signs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Cognitive load impairs dual-task performance of autistic and non-autistic participants. • Autistic participants deviate more from the baseline lane change path. • Correct lane changing was comparable for autistic and non-autistic participants. • Lane change initiation was comparable for autistic and non-autistic participants. This study investigated the impact of cognitive load on driving among autistic individuals with the use of an adapted, driving simulator-based, Lane Change Task (LCT). A secondary task was used to induce increasing verbal WM load. A total of 51 male participants, 17 autistic and 34 non-autistic individuals participated in the study. Participants drove the simulator-based LCT without (baseline) and with a three-level auditory-verbal response N-back task (i.e., 0-back,1-back, and 2-back) developed to tax working memory capacity. The included driving parameters were: mean deviation in the lane change path (MDEV), percentage of correct lane changes (PCL) in response to a lane change sign, and lane change initiation (LCI). The percentage of error rate (PER) was included to measure participants' performance on the secondary task. Dual-task performance of both groups deteriorated with increasing cognitive load, but this effect was more pronounced in the autistic group. Specifically, the performance of both group on MDEV, PCL, and PER suffered from the increasing cognitive load. Nevertheless, neither PCL nor LCI differ between autistic and non-autistic participants. Notably, LCI also deteriorated with increasing cognitive load for non-autistic participants, but not for autistic participants. Similar to previous research, it is suggested that distracted driving should be eliminated as much as possible before occurring in the first place. Specific suggestions for eliminating distraction in autistic drivers are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While dual-task walking requires the ability to integrate sensory information from multiple ongoing sources, it remains unknown whether dual-task walking is more affected than single-task walking by the multisensory integration ability. How does the audiovisual temporal integration ability affect single-task and dual-task gaits in the aging population? One hundred and thirty healthy middle-aged and older adults (age = 64.7 ± 6.4 years) completed an audiovisual simultaneity judgment (AVSJ) task and underwent single-task, motor dual-task, and cognitive dual-task gait assessments. In the AVSJ task, participants judged whether a flash and an auditory stimulus presented at different stimulus onset asynchronies were simultaneous. The accuracy and precision of the AVSJ performance were assessed using the point of subjective simultaneity (PSS) and the temporal binding window (δ), respectively. A lower absolute PSS and δ indicated better performance. Participants held a cup of water and performed serial-7 subtraction for motor and cognitive dual-task gait assessments, respectively. The spatiotemporal gait parameters and their variability were calculated. The influences of PSS and δ on the gait parameters of the three gaits were examined with multiple hierarchical regressions. Only the cognitive dual-task gait was significantly affected by PSS and δ. Greater PSS predicted a longer single support time (β = 0.195, p = 0.024) and its variability (β = 0.224, p = 0.011). Greater δ predicted greater step time variability (β = 0.198, p = 0.022). Declined perception of audiovisual simultaneity particularly degrades temporal control of cognitive dual-task walking, highlighting the importance of assessing and training this ability after midlife. • Audiovisual (AV) temporal perception and dual-task gaits decline in midlife. • Impact of AV perception on aging gaits under cognitive loads remains unclear. • Poorer AV temporal perception impairs temporal control of cognitive dual-task gait. • Single- and motor dual-task gaits show no audiovisual sensitivity. • Findings stress multisensory perception's importance in cognitive dual-task gait. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Cognitive Load Theory is an important element to consider to maximise learning. • Specific evidence based instructional design methodologies can be utilised to develop the curriculum. • Educators need to consider faculty education and development to enhance program maturity. The reader will come to appreciate that: • Cognitive Load Theory is an important element to consider to maximise learning. • Specific evidence based instructional design methodologies can be utilised to develop the curriculum. • Educators need to consider faculty education and development to enhance program maturity. Simulation based education (SBE) is an educational tool increasingly used in the approach to the initial and ongoing education of healthcare professionals. Like all education tools, SBE needs to be used appropriately to achieve the desired outcomes. Using Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) in the instructional design of simulations is essential to maximise participant learning by reducing extraneous load and optimising intrinsic load. Educators can modify task fidelity, task complexity and instructional support to optimise learning. Specific methodologies can be used in program design such as rapid cycle deliberate practice, round the table teaching, low dose high frequency and flipped classroom. Fidelity and authenticity are important factors to consider when choosing design elements to ensure learner engagement, but not to overwhelm cognitive load. An integral part of SBE is the feedback or debriefing component. Several evidence-based methodologies can be employed to facilitate post simulation learning, including Debriefing with Good Judgement and PEARLS. Educators also need to consider faculty education and development, such as the discovery, growth and maturity model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The level of urgency affects situation awareness(SA), trust, workload, and perceived urgency. • In high-level urgency, level 3 SA significantly improves situation awareness. • The displays with SA cues enhance system transparency, increasing drivers' trust. • Information that adequately describes the situation reduces the drivers' workload. • Level 1 SA is not significantly different from a display without SA factors. Semi-autonomous vehicles still require drivers to take over in an unexpected situation. In this situation, the increased cognitive load on the driver can lead to distraction, which in turn reduces situational awareness (SA) and prevents appropriate responses, increasing the risk of accidents. For this reason, providing interfaces that enhance SA is essential to ensuring safety and optimal performance. However, existing SA-based display research often overlooks the levels of SA and effectiveness of modalities, especially in urgent situations where a driver's SA might be compromised. The present study aims to design SA-based display that considers the urgency of the situation and the level of SA in line with a specific design framework and modality effectiveness. We conducted an experiment using simulated videos to evaluate the effectiveness of the SA-based display. This experiment assessed the effects of three urgent situations and three levels of situational awareness-based displays on drivers' SA, situational trust, mental workload, and perceived urgency. We employed a 3x4 mixed-factorial design for the experiment. The between-subject factors were the SA levels (perception, comprehension, and projection) and a baseline. The within-subject factors were urgency scenarios (low, medium, and high). The results showed that as urgency increased, displays reflecting Level 3 SA, which requires prediction, significantly improved SA compared to other displays. We expect our findings to contribute to the practical design of automotive displays by providing useful considerations for SA-based display design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Perception processes might alter in stressful conditions, which supposedly impacts the oculomotor activity during visual search tasks. In this study we used Schulte tables in order to assess visual attention and changes in eye-movement patterns in a stressful situation. Nineteen normotypical respondents (mean age 18.36, SD 0.7, all female) took part in the experiment. Data was recorded with Eyelink 1000+ of the left eye at the rate of 500 hz with the head stabilized. They were presented with three Schulte tables and clicked on numbers in the 1st in ascending order, the 2nd in descending order and the 3rd in alternation. The experimental group completed the tasks with metronome and with the aim of the fastest completion. The control group completed without limitation in time. The success of completion was measured by the correct order of mouse clicks. The Spearman's correlations between the points of efficiency of task completion and oculomotor data in experimental group in the 3rd alternation table were obtained: the efficiency was higher when fewer fixation count (r=-.802, p=.005), saccade count (r=-.802, p=.005) and returns (r=-.620, p=.050) were executed. Also, the saccade amplitude positively correlates with the participants' efficiency (r=.815, p=.004). The mean discrepancy of optimal scan-path and factual scan-path was calculated for each respondent and negatively correlated with efficiency (r=-.802, p=.005) demonstrated that following the most optimal path increased the performance success. Moreover, we conducted an analysis to determine the mean dispersion of the total absolute change in speed (TACS) across two axes through mathematical calculations. The findings indicated that TACS exhibited a statistically significant difference solely in relation to the 1st Schulte table when comparing the control and experimental groups using a t-test (p=.04). Consequently, the outcomes suggest that under stressful conditions, TACS is decreased, which represents equal speed of saccades. In conclusion, the results demonstrate that in stressful situations with higher cognitive load the precision of task completion is higher when fewer saccades, fixations and returns are performed as well as following the most optimal scan path. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Outdoor navigation often poses significant challenges for blind individuals due to the lack of accessibility features. Public accessibility systems often overlook the needs of the blind, leading to exclusionary experiences. Blind individuals frequently rely on alternative senses, such as creating mental maps, to navigate known spaces. Even commonplace activities like using transportation can be complex, requiring the blind to map known places with maneuvers made by the driver. Integrating a speech and gesture-based interface within accessibility frameworks is a crucial step towards inclusivity and improved user experiences. This approach offers alternative interaction methods beyond traditional graphical interfaces, empowering individuals with diverse abilities to navigate outdoor environments effortlessly. By implementing multi-modal feedback interfaces, our effort aims to create an intuitive interaction method that seamlessly provides navigation instructions, guiding users step-by-step along their routes. We prioritize minimizing cognitive load and architectural complexities by designing a notification system that complements the user's actions without causing distraction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Meta-analysis was conducted to identify factors associated with cognitive load. • Association between physiological metrics and cognitive load was quantified. • Association between eye-tracking metrics and cognitive load was quantified. • Four types of metrics were identified based on their sensitivity to cognitive load. • Modulating factors impacting metric-cognitive load associations were identified. Driving performance can be impaired by a high cognitive load of drivers. Thus, it is important to estimate drivers' cognitive load. Although physiological and eye-tracking metrics have been widely used in many studies to assess cognitive load while driving, conflicts still exist regarding the association between physiological and eye-tracking metrics and different levels of cognitive load. Through a meta -analysis, our study aims to quantify the association between physiological, eye-tracking metrics and cognitive load induced by n-back tasks. A total of 18 articles met the inclusion criteria for the meta -analysis. The results indicate four types of metrics, including the sensitive-to-low ones that can only differentiate the low to medium level of cognitive load (i.e., the power spectrum of θ wave of electroencephalogram at Fp1 channel); high-resolution ones that can differentiate all levels of cognitive load (including pupil size, heart rate, and skin conductance); and low-resolution ones that can only differentiate low and high cognitive load (including the total power spectrum of electrocardiogram, eye blink rate, and respiration rate) and others (the power spectrum of θ wave of electroencephalogram at Fp2 channel). Furthermore, the association between metrics and cognitive load can be modulated by the n-back version, modality of n-back task, automation level, and percentage of male participants. In summary, this study contributes to the literature by quantifying associations between physiological and eye-tracking metrics and different cognitive load levels. Practically, we provide evidence for the selection of physiological and eye-tracking metrics for future driving cognitive load monitoring system design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We quantify the cognitive load under varying non-driving-related tasks (NDRTs) in automated driving by physiological state of eye movement. • Dempster-Shafer (D-S) Evidence Theory is used to associate the workload of different typical scenarios, NDRTs and the safety of takeover. • Takeover safety is predicted by Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN) based on cognitive load. • The effect of window size of the input data for takeover safety prediction is especially considered. Automated vehicles alleviate the need for driver attention and control. However, a takeover request (TOR) to the driver remains essential for emergencies and safety–critical scenarios beyond automation's capability. Thus, accessing drivers' safety performance in various TOR scenarios is crucial for conditionally automated driving (SAE L3). However, TOR safety performance is seldom examined concerning drivers' cognitive load, despite its presumed relevance to TOR scenarios and human–machine interaction. Moreover, the adequacy of the time window preceding a TOR, critical for TOR safety prediction, remains inadequately explored. This study aims to assess safety performance across diverse TOR scenarios in Level 3 conditional automation, incorporating drivers' cognitive load, and predict TOR safety by considering the time window's impact. A driving simulator experiment gathered eye movement and driving behavior data from 37 recruited participants. Participants were instructed to take control of the vehicle from automated driving within a time budget (TB) of 3 s or 7 s in obstacle avoidance (OA) or lane keeping (LK) scenarios while engaging in non-driving-related tasks (NDRTs). Participants' subjective cognitive load in the different TOR scenarios was scaled using NASA-TLX. Furthermore, safe TOR performance was predicted utilizing Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) across different time window sizes preceding a TOR. The results indicate that: 1) cognitive loads in takeover scenarios ranked from highest to lowest as TB = 3s_OA, TB = 3s_LK, TB = 7s_OA, TB = 7s_LK; and the cognitive loads of the NDRTs ranked from highest to lowest as mistake finding, texting, chatting, monitoring; 2) the takeover safety performance in the four scenarios from lowest to highest was TB = 3s_OA, TB = 3s_LK, TB = 7s_OA, TB = 7s_LK; likewise, the takeover safety performance during the four NDRTs ranked from lowest to highest as mistake finding, monitoring, texting, chatting; 3) the time window size before the TORs significantly affected the prediction performance of the model. A 30-second window was recommended as optimal for predicting takeover safety using the CNN model, achieving an average F1 score of 0.8120 and 81.98 % accuracy. This study's findings enhance our comprehension of driving behavior characteristics during TOR and offer valuable insights for detecting driver states in conditionally automated driving contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Investigation of pedestrians' road-crossing decisions and gaze patterns in response to scalable AVs with the same vs different eHMIs. • Comparison of 16 unique eHMI combinations across two AVs (originated from four eHMI manipulations for each AV). • Differences in eHMIs across AVs resulted in prolonged road-crossing decision times, diminished perceived clarity, and intensified visual attention. • Integration of pedestrian symbol-based eHMIs garnered superior clarity ratings, facilitated time savings, and reduced visual engagement. • This study highlights the significance of integrating interpretable, intuitive, and consistent eHMI design for future AVs. To enhance the efficiency and safety of interactions with pedestrians, numerous external Human-Machine Interfaces (eHMIs) concepts for automated vehicles (AVs) have been proposed and evaluated, predominately based on singular pedestrian-AV interaction scenarios. This leaves a gap in comprehending the efficiency and robustness of eHMIs during interactions with scalable AVs. To bridge the gap, this study pioneers an exploration of pedestrians' road-crossing decisions, perceived clarity, and gaze behaviour during synchronous interactions with multiple AVs equipped with different eHMIs. An eye-tracking experiment was conducted, involving 48 video stimuli depicting two AVs (with yielding patterns and eHMIs manipulated) approaching a predetermined road-crossing location from the same side of a two-way, four-lane, un-signalized road. Each yielding AV will present one of four eHMI manipulations (i.e., light band, smiling expression, pedestrian symbol, and no eHMI as baseline), resulting in 16 unique eHMI combinations and video stimuli. Eighty-seven participants were recruited and tasked to respond to approaching AVs, during which their road-crossing decision time, perceived clarity, and gaze metrics were recorded. Findings revealed that different eHMIs across AVs were associated with prolonged road-crossing decision times, diminished perceived clarity, and intensified visual attention as evidenced by increased fixation counts and durations. Regarding AVs equipped with the same eHMIs, the pedestrian symbol-based eHMIs resulted in heightened clarity perception, reduced crossing decision times and visual engagement, in contrast to eHMIs presented in abstract light bands or smiling expressions. Furthermore, for eHMI-different AVs, those featuring only one eHMI within AVL-AVR pairs were perceived as less clear, eliciting heightened visual cognitive load and decision times. Integration of a pedestrian symbol-based eHMI in AVL-AVR configurations garnered superior clarity ratings and facilitated time savings. These findings of this pioneering study provide insights for eHMI design for future AVs in complex traffic scenarios with scalable road users. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Typically, in standardised tests, girls underperform boys in mathematics while boys underperform girls in reading. Can these educational inequalities be driven by specific testing practices? This study addresses this question by innovatively using data from the largest worldwide standardized test and exploiting the random variation in the format of the tests assigned to students. I find that there is a noticeable widening of the gender gap when a larger share of questions is multiple-choice, rather than filling-the-gap questions. A 10 percentage point increase in the share of multiple-choice questions inflates female under-performance in mathematics by 0.025 standard deviations and male under-performance in reading by 0.035 standard deviations. This accounts for nearly one-quarter of the overall gender disparity found in these subjects. I provide suggestive evidence that ruling out alternative options, rather than coming up with an entire answer, may contribute to cognitive information overload among students with lower confidence levels (generally girls in mathematics and boys in reading). These cognitive loads, in turn, have implications for a student's future level of effort and performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anaesthetic drug administration is complex, and typical clinical environments can entail significant cognitive load. Colour-coded anaesthetic drug trays have shown promising results for error identification and reducing cognitive load. We used experimental psychology methods to test the potential benefits of colour-coded compartmentalised trays compared with conventional trays in a simulated visual search task. Effects of cognitive load were also explored through an accompanying working memory-based task. We hypothesised that colour-coded compartmentalised trays would improve drug-detection error, reduce search time, and reduce cognitive load. This comprised a cognitive load memory task presented alongside a visual search task to detect drug errors. All 53 participants completed 36 trials, which were counterbalanced across the two tray types and 18 different vignettes. There were 16 error-present and 20 error-absent trials, with 18 trials presented for each preloaded tray type. Syringe errors were detected more often in the colour-coded trays than in the conventional trays (91% vs 83%, respectively; P =0.006). In signal detection analysis, colour-coded trays resulted in more sensitivity to the error signal (2.28 vs 1.50, respectively; P <0.001). Confidence in response accuracy correlated more strongly with task performance for the colour-coded tray condition, indicating improved metacognitive sensitivity to task performance (r =0.696 vs r =0.447). Colour coding and compartmentalisation enhanced visual search efficacy of drug trays. This is further evidence that introducing standardised colour-coded trays into operating theatres and procedural suites would add an additional layer of safety for anaesthetic procedures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We applied the ISO DRT to measure the cognitive load of driving four vehicles on two highways with distinct characteristics. • Worse DRT performance was found on the narrower, more winding highway. • Vehicle-specific differences were also found. • DRT performance in the Volvo was worse than that observed for the Tesla, Nissan, and Cadillac. The ISO Detection Response Task (DRT) is a standard tool for assessing drivers' cognitive load and it has primarily been used to measure the cognitive load of completing non-driving tasks and interacting with vehicle systems. In this study we use the DRT to measure the workload of driving four separate vehicles (a 2019 Tesla Model 3, a 2018 Cadillac CT6, a 2018 Volvo XC90, a 2019 Nissan Rogue) in manual mode and on two distinct roadways (US Interstate Highway 15 and 80) in and around Salt Lake City, UT. Results showed that the unique road characteristics of I-80 resulted in higher levels of cognitive load as demonstrated by the slower DRT response times. Likewise, different levels of workload were found across the four vehicles, with higher workload levels found for one of the four vehicles. This study expands the use of the DRT outside its original area of application, and advances it as a tool to assess the cognitive demand induced by varying road and vehicle characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We explored neural processing differences associated with aging across four cognitive functions. In addition to ERP analysis, we included task-related microstate analyses, which identified stable states of neural activity across the scalp over time, to explore whole-head neural activation differences. Younger and older adults (YA, OA) completed face perception (N170), word-pair judgment (N400), visual oddball (P3), and flanker (ERN) tasks. Age-related effects differed across tasks. Despite age-related delayed latencies, N170 ERP and microstate analyses indicated no age-related differences in amplitudes or microstates. However, age-related condition differences were found for P3 and N00 amplitudes and scalp topographies: smaller condition differences were found for in OAs as well as broader centroparietal scalp distributions. Age group comparisons for the ERN revealed similar focal frontocentral activation loci, but differential activation patterns. Our findings of differential age effects across tasks are most consistent with the STAC-r framework which proposes that age-related effects differ depending on the resources available and the kinds of processing and cognitive load required of various tasks. • ERP and microstate analyses showed that age effects differed across four tasks. • Microstates with ERPs help distinguish among current theories of neural aging. • Spatial distributions of neural processing phases differ by age across time and task. • Different age-related effects across tasks were most consistent with STAC-r. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Breathing elevated oxygen partial pressures (PO 2) prior to SCUBA diving increases the risk of developing central nervous system oxygen toxicity (CNS-OT), which could impair performance or result in seizure and subsequent drowning. We aimed to study the dynamics of electrodermal activity (EDA) while breathing elevated PO 2 in the hyperbaric environment (HBO 2) as a possible means to predict impending CNS-OT. To this end, we used machine learning to automatically detect and predict the onset of symptoms associated with CNS-OT in humans by using features derived from EDA in both time and frequency domains. We collected electrodermal activity (EDA) data from forty-nine exposures to HBO 2 while subjects were undergoing cognitive load and exercise in a hyperbaric oxygen chamber. Four independent experts were present during the experiment to monitor and classify any symptoms associated with hyperbaric oxygen toxicity. We computed a highly sensitive time varying spectral EDA index, named TVSymp, and extracted informative features from skin conductance responses (SCRs). Machine learning algorithms were trained and validated for classifying features from SCRs and TVSymp as CNS-OT related or non-CNS-OT related. Machine learning models were validated using a subject-independent leave one subject out (LOSO) validation scheme. Our machine learning model was able to classify EDA dynamics related to CNS-OT with 100 % sensitivity and 84 % specificity via LOSO validation. Moreover, the median prediction time for CNS-OT symptoms was ∼ 250 s preceding the occurrence of actual symptoms. This study shows that EDA can potentially be used for early prediction of CNS-OT in divers with a high sensitivity and sufficient prediction time for countermeasures. While the study results are promising, independent validation datasets are warranted to confirm the findings. However, the current results are well corroborated in an animal study, which consistently showed seizure prediction time of 2 min prior to seizure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We tested whether mental fatigue (MF), induced by a cognitively-demanding task, would impair repeated sprint ability (RSA) and repeated jump ability (RJA) performance, and whether physical fatigue and MF would impair psychomotor vigilance. Randomized within-participant design. After establishing baseline peak countermovement jump (CMJ), 18 male participants performed 12 maximal 20-m (10-m linear + 10-m directional) repeated sprints (RSA random test) followed by 12 maximal repeated CMJs (RJA test) subsequent to 30-min Stroop task (MF) or a documentary (Control). Peak and mean running time and height, percent decrement score (S dec), blood lactate, heart rate and RPE were measured for CMJ, RSA, and RJA tests. MF (M-VAS) and psychomotor vigilance [psychomotor vigilance test (PVT)] were measured at baseline, after each condition, and after the RSA/RJA tests. Compared to Control, the Stroop task elevated MF (p =.001), RPE ratings (all p <.031), and mean and S dec performance in directional (but not linear) RSA (all p <.032) and RJA tests (all p <.034). PVT score worsened after Stroop task (p =.011) but not Control, declined after RSA/RJA tests in both conditions (all p <.023) and was lower in the MF condition (p =.029). No condition differences were noted for peak (CMJ, RSA and RJA tests) performance, blood lactate, and heart rate. MF impairs directional RSA, and RJA performance. This impairment was linked with increased RPE and without physiological changes. The progressive impairment in PVT score suggests a cumulatively negative effect of mental and physical fatigue on psychomotor vigilance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human robot collaboration is becoming the norm in the workplace, due to the benefits robots can bring to efficiency and production. However, this creates highly complex and dynamic workplaces that human operators need to adapt to. Industry 5.0 promotes the use of robotics and smart technologies in a more human-centric way. However, research on how operators are affected by those changes is needed to better understand how to move towards human-centricity. As such, an experimental study was designed and performed on human robot collaborative assembly. The main aim was to investigate the correlation between cognitive load and quality due to collaboration. Here, the preliminary results of the experimental study are presented in order to remark relevant states influencing work allocation. The results showcased the need for better training and more knowledge for the operators, as well as involving operators in process and workplace design. This study helps contribute knowledge on robot implementation and process design for human robot collaboration for both researchers and operations management, as it showcases the need to involve operators in those steps due to the feedback they can provide due to their experience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to investigate the differences in visual attention between novices and orthognathic experts, as well as to provide evidence for use in developing and optimizing training strategies for orthognathic surgery. Novice and orthognathic experts were recruited, and their distributions of visual attention were monitored via an eye-tracking device while they watched orthognathic surgery videos. The percentages of visual fixation duration devoted to the areas of interest — surgical objects, instruments controlled by the main surgeon, and instruments controlled by the assistants — in each orthognathic surgery section were analyzed and compared between the two groups using repeated-measures factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA). In total, there were 18 participants, comprising both novices (n = 9) and experts (n = 9). For all sections of orthognathic surgery, the percentage of fixation duration on surgical objects was significantly higher for the novices than for the experts (p = 0.031, p = 0.005, p = 0.026, p = 0.047, p = 0.047, p = 0.031, p = 0.027, p = 0.034, p = 0.008, and p = 0.016). During the maxillary segment separation as part of Le Fort I osteotomy and the splitting of the mandible as part of bilateral sagittal split osteotomy, the novices also had a higher percentage of fixation duration on the instruments controlled by the main surgeon, as compared with the experts (p = 0.007 and p = 0.048, respectively). Novices invested great cognitive effort into the surgical objects in each section of orthognathic surgery, including the instruments controlled by the main surgeon in the maxillary segment separation and the splitting of the mandible. Strengthening this aspect of instruction could help novices reduce their cognitive load and achieve mastery more efficiently. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores the potential synergy between neurodiversity and advanced technology within Industry 5.0, focusing on the integration of neurodiverse individuals in the workforce through Human-Machine Collaboration and Reciprocal Learning (RL). A cognitive load (CL) assessment procedure is developed using fuzzy logic inference across the dimensions of attention, memory, language, math, logic, and reading. A case study evaluates the effectiveness of RL in assisting assembly tasks. Different error-handling scenarios are compared. Experimental results show how RL can reduce the CL while improving assembly tasks efficiency, underscoring the value of intelligent systems in inclusive manufacturing, enhancing productivity and facilitating the integration of neurodiverse workers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Medication errors in anaesthesia remain a leading cause of patient harm. Compared with conventional methods, use of the international colour-code standard on syringes and medication trays allows significantly more errors to be detected, and does so under conditions of cognitive load. Testing methods from experimental psychology provide important new insights for human factors research in anaesthesia and health care. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

I analyze the decisions of a β − δ consumer who, through effort invested in focusing on the future, sets the δ that will apply to her self in the next period. She has access to no other commitment technology. Because the model interprets dynamic inconsistency in a way that gives rise to the demand for costly self-control, it disambiguates the welfare benefit of commitment devices that limit future options. It explains why cognitive loading is associated with impulsivity, why U.S. savings rates have exhibited increased income stratification since the 1980s, and what visionary leadership and role models signify in economic terms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to investigate the neural mechanisms underlying working memory impairment in patients with chronic insomnia disorder (CID) using event-related potentials (ERP) and resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) approaches. Participants, including CID patients and healthy controls (HCs), completed clinical scales and underwent electroencephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). EEG analysis compared reaction times, P3 amplitudes, event-related spectral perturbations (ERSP), and inter-trial phase synchronisation (ITPS) between CID patients and HCs. Subsequently, frontal regions (i.e., the Superior Frontal Gyrus [SFG] and Middle Frontal Gyrus [MFG]) corresponding to the EEG were selected as seeds for rsFC analysis. Correlation analyses were conducted to further investigate the relationship between functional connectivity abnormalities in brain regions and clinical symptom severity and P3 amplitude in CID patients. Compared to HCs, CID patients exhibited slower reaction times across all working memory conditions, with the deficits becoming more pronounced as memory load increased. ERP analysis revealed increased P3 amplitude, theta wave power, and reduced inter-trial synchrony in CID patients. rsFC analysis showed decreased connectivity of SFG-posterior cingulated cortex (PCC), SFG-MFG, and MFG-frontal pole (FP), and increased connectivity of MFG- Middle Temporal Gyrus (MTG)in CID patients. Importantly, a significant correlation was found between the rsFC of SFG-MTG and P3 amplitude during 1-back. This study confirms deficits in working memory capacity in patients with CID, specifically in the neural mechanisms of cognitive processing that vary depending on the level of cognitive load. Alterations in connectivity patterns within and between the frontal and temporal regions may be the neural basis of the cognitive impairment. • Patients with CID exhibited working memory deficits and altered cognitive load management. • Alterations in connectivity patterns within and between the frontal and temporal regions may underlie working memory deficits. • The integration of ERP and fMRI explored the potential mechanisms of working memory deficitsfrom a multimodal perspective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• No response accuracy costs related to increasing cognitive load during walking. • No response speed costs related to increasing cognitive load during walking. • No gait consistency costs related to increasing cognitive load during walking. • Increasing cognitive load during walking came with widespread EEG changes. This study elucidates the neural mechanisms underlying increasing cognitive load while walking by employing 2 versions of a response inhibition task, the '1-back' version and the more cognitively demanding '2-back' version. By using the Mobile Brain/Body Imaging (MoBI) modality, electroencephalographic (EEG) activity, three-dimensional (3D) gait kinematics and task-related behavioral responses were collected while young adults (n = 61) performed either the 1-back or 2-back response inhibition task. Interestingly, increasing inhibitory difficulty from 1-back to 2-back during walking was not associated with any detectable costs in response accuracy, response speed, or gait consistency. However, the more difficult cognitive task was associated with distinct EEG component changes during both successful inhibitions (correct rejections) and successful executions (hits) of the motor response. During correct rejections, ERP changes were found over frontal regions, during latencies related to sensory gain control, conflict monitoring and working memory storage and processing. During hits, ERP changes were found over left-parietal regions during latencies related to orienting attention and subsequent selection and execution of the motor plan. The pattern of attenuation in walking-related EEG amplitude changes, during 2-back task performance, is thought to reflect more effortful recalibration of neural processes, a mechanism which might be a key driver of performance maintenance in the face of increased cognitive demands while walking. Overall, the present findings shed light on the extent of the neurocognitive capacity of young adults and may lead to a better understanding of how factors such as aging or neurological disorders could impinge on this capacity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Higher visibility of markings and signs influenced slight increase in driving speed. • Road signs with higher visibility attracted the subjects' eyes more. • Optimal cognitive activity was achieved during high visibility condition. • Better visibility of markings and signs increased awareness of the participants. Night-time conditions are one of the most complex driving situations due to limited availability of visual information in the environment and limitations to the human visual system. In such conditions, road markings and road signs are the main source of information for drivers. Research has shown that road markings and road signs, if properly designed and placed, can positively impact driver behaviour and thus overall road safety. However, it is still not completely clear how different levels of road markings and road signs visibility affect drivers in night-time conditions. For this reason, we used a driving simulator to simulate night-time conditions and different levels of visibility of road markings and road signs in order to analyse the connection between the visibility of these road elements and driver behaviour and cognitive load. The results suggest that the level of road markings and road signs visibility slight increased the driving speed (about 2%), but at the same time it had a positive effect on participants' cognitive load which was at an optimal level during high visibility. Although there was no significant difference in participants' eye movements and the number of gazes at road markings, the percentage share of looked road signs was the highest in high visibility conditions, which suggests that the participants were in most cases timely informed and aware of the upcoming situation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Impairments in effort-cost decision-making have been consistently observed in people with schizophrenia (SZ) and may be an important mechanism of negative symptoms. However, the processes that give rise to impairments in effort-cost decision-making are unclear, leading to limited progress in identifying the most relevant treatment targets. Drawing from cognitive models of negative symptoms and goal-directed behavior, this study aimed to examine how and under what type of task conditions defeatist performance beliefs contribute to these decision-making processes. Outpatients with SZ (n = 30) and healthy controls (CN; n = 28) completed a cognitive effort allocation task, the Cognitive Effort-Discounting (COGED) task, which assesses participants' willingness to exert cognitive effort for monetary rewards based on parametrically varied working memory demands (completing N-back levels). Results showed that although participants with SZ demonstrated reduced willingness to work for rewards across N-back levels compared to CN participants, they showed less choice modulation across different N-back conditions. However, among SZ participants with greater defeatist performance beliefs, there was a reduced willingness to choose the high effort option at higher N-back levels (N-back levels 3, 4, and 5 versus 2-back). Results suggest that compared to CN, the SZ group's subjective willingness to expend effort largely did not dynamically adjust as cognitive load increased. However, defeatist beliefs may undermine willingness to expend cognitive effort, especially when cognitive task demands are high. These beliefs may be a viable treatment target to improve effort-cost decision-making impairments in people with SZ. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Breaking bad news (BN) is difficult and necessitates targeted training. To be effective, training may call for High Fidelity Simulation (HFS). This prospective study was conducted to objectively assess the impact of HFS as a tool conducive to the development of clinical competence in situations involving the delivery of bad news. This feasibility study was conducted from January to May 2021 and included students in medical oncology and digestive surgery. The subjective and objective impacts of HFS were evaluated by means of a self-administered questionnaire and a wristband, Affect-tag, which recorded several indicators: emotional power (EP), emotional density (DE) and cognitive load (CL) in students undergoing training. Forty-six (46) students with a median age of 25 years (21–34 years) were included. While the participants were effectively and emotionally involved in the HFS training, they were not completely overwhelmed by their emotions, a possible occurrence in this type of program. After two training programs, the students presented with lower EP (P < 0.001) and higher DE (P = 0.005), while their CL remained stable (P = 0.751). The information given in the self-administered questionnaires and the evaluations by outside professionals (actor, nurse, psychologist...) highlighted improved skills. Taking into account the emotional parameters observed and the questionnaires collected, HFS can be considered as a suitable and effective tool in the breaking of bad news. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Videoconferencing platforms (i.e., Zoom) allow for continuous appearance monitoring via the self-view setting – raising concerns about self-objectification. Prior research indicates that self-objectification is associated with diminished cognitive performance, which may affect learning. This experiment examined how videoconferencing camera settings affect body image and cognitive performance. Female college students (n = 167) participated in a Zoom call with various camera settings: camera with self-view (i.e., others could see them and they could see themselves on screen), camera without self-view (i.e., others on the call could see them, but they could not see themselves), and camera off. After random assignment to condition, participants completed a collaborative exercise, answered questions related to self-objectification and body anxiety, and took a math test. Camera settings had no effect on state self-objectification or appearance anxiety. Participants in the camera without self-view condition demonstrated worse performance on the math test than those who had their cameras off, but no other pairwise comparisons were significant. Surprisingly, high trait self-objectifiers were not more sensitive to self-view camera exposure, though high trait self-objectification was associated with greater appearance anxiety across conditions. State self-objectification did not predict cognitive performance. Still, findings demonstrate a meaningful effect of camera settings on cognitive performance. • Trait self-objectification predicted body anxiety in all camera conditions. • Zoom settings had no effect on state self-objectification or appearance anxiety. • Camera without self-view condition exhibited lower cognitive performance. • State SO did not mediate effect of camera setting on cognitive performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The impact of age, lighting, and cognitive load on DRT and driving performance was studied. • Young drivers drove faster and performed better in the n-back tasks and DRT, compared to older drivers. • Cognitive load increased response time to the DRT, especially for older drivers. • Cognitive load only reduced standard deviation of lane position (SDLP) in the absence of DRT. Over the past 25 years, distracted driving and driver inattention have been one of the main risk factors for road traffic safety. Previous research has shown that increased cognitive load from non-visual activities take our mind off the driving task, by engaging our working memory resources. Studies have shown that engagement in these tasks results in a more concentrated gaze towards the road centre, reducing lateral deviation (e.g., reduced standard deviation of lane position (SDLP) and less high frequency steering reversals). The Detection-Response Task (DRT) is an International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standard used to study the impact of cognitive load, due to secondary task, on performance. This driving simulator study examined the effect of varying levels of cognitive load (using the n-back task) on driving and DRT performance. The effect of age and lighting conditions was examined by comparing the performance of a younger group of drivers (Age Mdn = 22) with that of an older cohort (Age Mdn = 66) during day- and night-time driving conditions. Results showed that young drivers' DRT performance was better at night-time compared to day-time, when compared to that of older drivers. Young drivers also performed better at the n-back task. Overall, an increase in cognitive load increased response time to the DRT task. In line with previous studies, an increase in cognitive load also reduced SDLP, but only in the absence of the DRT. These results provide new knowledge on drivers' detection of peripheral stimuli during different lighting conditions, and how these are affected by a cognitively loading, non-visual, working memory task. The implications of these findings on real-world road safety are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Whether pragmatic inferences are cognitively more effortful than processing literal language has been a longstanding question in pragmatics. So far, experimental studies have exclusively tested generalized (scalar) implicatures. Current theories would predict that particularized implicatures should be cognitively effortful – however, this prediction has to date not been tested empirically. The present article contributes to the debate by investigating a specific type of particularized implicature, atypicality inferences, in a dual-task paradigm. In three experiments, we used either a non-linguistic (Experiment 1) or a linguistic (Experiments 2 and 3) secondary task, to modulate the amount of available cognitive resources. Our results show that the strength of pragmatic inferences is largely unaffected by the secondary task, which contrasts with prior predictions. We discuss the implications for traditional and modern accounts of pragmatic processing. • This article studies the cost associated with processing of inferences triggered by informational redundancy. • A dual-task paradigm is used to modulate the load. • Contrary to theoretical predictions, the inferences are unaffected by the cognitive load coming from a secondary task. • One experiment showed a reduction in performance on the secondary task. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evidence that mental fatigue impairs sport performance has created a demand for countermeasures. We examined the effects of brain endurance training, a form of fatigue-inoculation, on shot performance in grassroots padel players. A pre-, mid- and post-test design, with participants randomized to brain endurance training (n = 30) or control (n = 31) groups. During testing, participants completed a Padel Stroke Performance Test, before and after a demanding 30-min cognitive task (Stroop). Training comprised 3 sessions/week for 6 weeks. In each training session, participants completed 10-min warm-up, 15-min technical drills, 15-min tactical drills, and 20-min simulated games. These physical activities were intermixed with short 4-min periods of Stroop (brain endurance training group) or rest (control group) totaling 20-min. Performance was measured by shot speed and accuracy of padel strokes. Mental fatigue indices were measured before and after the Stroop task using a visual analog scale rating, a psychomotor vigilance task, and a go/no-go task. During testing, the 30-min Stroop task elicited a state of mental fatigue, confirmed by higher subjective ratings, slower responses during the psychomotor vigilance task, and slower saccade latencies during the go/no go task. Compared to pre-testing, in mid- and post-testing, the brain endurance training group hit progressively faster and more accurate padel shots after the Stroop task compared to controls. Brain endurance training enhanced skill-based psychomotor performance when fatigued compared to standard padel training. Brain endurance training is a countermeasure that promotes mental fatigue durability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When cognitive load exceeds cognitive capacity, individuals may make poorer decisions, especially when substantial deliberation is required. Deck and Jahedi's (2015) influential work on cognitive load found that individuals whose arithmetic performance is most impacted by high cognitive load become more risk averse, less patient and more subject to the anchoring effect. Since results of cognitive load manipulation studies are mixed, replication of influential studies is essential to strengthen our understanding of the effects of cognitive load. In this paper, we attempt to closely replicate Experiment 1 in Deck and Jahedi (2015). Though we observe similar effects of cognitive load on arithmetic performance, we fail to replicate their overall results on risky choice and impatience. While we are unable to clearly identify the reasons for this non-replication, the evidence points to subtle differences in the allocation of attention and effort across subject pools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Clinical populations often walk with altered foot placement, which can adversely affect balance control. However, it is unknown how balance control during walking is influenced when combining a cognitive load with altered foot placement. Is balance control during walking adversely affected by the combination of a more complex motor task, such as walking with altered foot placements, with a cognitive load? Fifteen young healthy adults walked on a treadmill with and without a spelling cognitive load during normal walking, with step width targets (self-selected width, narrow, wide and extra wide), or with step length targets (self-selected length, short and long). Cognitive performance, measured by correct spelling response rate, decreased from self-selected (2.407 ± 0.6 letters/s) to the extra wide width (2.011 ± 0.5 letters/s). The addition of the cognitive load caused a decrease in frontal plane balance control across all step lengths (15% change) and at the wider step widths (16% change), but only caused a slight decrease in the sagittal plane for the short step length (6.8% change). These results suggest that when combining a cognitive load with walking at non-self-selected widths, a threshold exists at wider steps where attentional resources become insufficient and balance control and cognitive performance decrease. Because decreased balance control increases the risk of falling, these results have implications for clinical populations who often walk with wider steps. Furthermore, the lack of changes to sagittal plane balance during altered step length dual-tasks further supports that frontal plane balance requires more active control. • Increasing step width with a cognitive load adversely affects frontal plane balance. • Wider steps also adversely affects cognitive performance. • Altering step length with a cognitive load does not affect sagittal plane balance. • These results further support frontal plane balance requires more active control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Screen- and headset-based virtual simulation modalities yield similar performance. • Screen- and headset-based virtual simulation modalities have comparable usability. • Screen- and headset-based virtual simulation modalities require similar mental load. • Screen- and headset-based virtual simulation modalities foster similar emotions. Simulations have become widely used in health care education to enhance learner preparedness. Virtual simulations, both screen- or headset-based, provide nursing students with the ability and flexibility to practice patient care at their convenience and obtain valuable automatic feedback before treating patients. While cheaper than in-person simulations and effective in teaching students, limited work exists to provide guidance concerning which modality type (screen-based or headset) offers an optimal interactive learning experience. We compared nursing students' (n = 29) performance (Oxford Medical Simulation software-generated score), ratings of usability (system usability scale and handheld augmented reality usability scale), cognitive load demands (Leppink's cognitive load scale), and emotions (medical emotions scale) between the two modalities, while keeping the virtual simulation constant. Both modalities yielded statistically comparable results in performance scores, usability, cognitive resources, and emotional experiences as determined by statistical analysis. Results suggest that nursing students have similar experiences and benefits from using headset and screen-based virtual simulation modalities. Therefore, educators have the flexibility to choose between screen-based and headset modalities for virtual simulation training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Video content on the internet commands a substantial portion of online activities and holds immense value in driving effective marketing campaigns. The question is, how can we measure the potential of video content to capture user attention and how to improve video effectiveness without techniques that increase cognitive load and result in avoidance and skipping of advertisements. This study investigated how video dynamics represented by dedicated metrics is related to eye-tracking patterns and whether video dynamics can be a predictor of user engagement represented by the number of fixations and the duration of gaze on video content. The results showed that selected metrics can serve as predictors of eye movement patterns and that video dynamics have a real impact on user engagement with the viewed video content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Virtual tours in 360° video format are a modern way to destination marketing. The relevance of the study of innovative ways of promoting territories is determined by the process of digitalization of the economy and the high prevalence of digital communications. The scientific problem addressed in this study is to examine the effectiveness of 360° video in the marketing of territories in order to determine its impact on consumers and assess the emotional attitude to the territory. The present study used eye-tracking technology to analyze patterns of attention distribution, which are related to the level of knowledge about territories, while watching a 360° video showcasing to these territories. The scientific novelty of this study is a consideration of attention distribution features using eye-tracking technology while watching a 360° video in the context of territory marketing. The sample consisted of 30 students from Switzerland and Russia and the study was conducted in two countries. The objective of the study was to identify differences in eye movements when watching a 360° video in groups of people with different degrees of awareness of Switzerland. The results showed that the average duration per fixation was significantly longer in the Russian group, as was the degree of cognitive load, compared to the Swiss group. The Swiss group required more time to fixate their gaze on large objects, while the amount of the objects which were observed significantly decreased in both groups in the last part of the video. The results of the study can be used as recommendations for the creation and effective use of 360° video in the marketing of territories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the lack of accessibility features, the process by which a blind person navigates in space is sometimes regarded as difficult. A large part of the accessibility systems, for the public, are not designed to consider the usage of the blind, which can lead to exclusion. The majority of them must rely on other senses for space location awareness, an example that is followed frequently is the creation of mental maps for certain already-known places. Using the means of transportation, which is a necessary activity for a blind person but uncomplicated for a sighted person, may require studying every move the driver makes in order to accurately determine the present path. Crowdsourcing systems offer the potential to develop a social network through which some of the issues faced by blind people may be resolved. Over time, this leads to the development of a community that fully comprehends the issues and requirements that visually impaired people (VIPs) encounter on a daily basis. With the use of multi-modal feedback interfaces, this effort intends to demonstrate a collaborative system that pairs volunteers with blind persons and guides them along a route. We address the issue of minimizing the cognitive load in addition to the architecture-related issues of such a system by designing a notification system that does not distract the user from their current action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cognitive involvement in reading causes variations in the tonus of autonomic nerve system. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of short-term cognitive load on accommodation and pupils' absolute values and temporal variability in test persons performing three different types of tasks. We aimed to show how cognitive tasks of different type and difficulty level affect accommodation and pupil behavior during a short time interval. Participants (n = 58; mean age 16.4 years, SD = 0.56) performed reading from a 10-inch LCD screen placed at 40 cm distance. Three different types of tasks (numerical, textual, and the Stroop task), each at three different levels of cognitive load were introduced. Participants had 90 s to complete each task. Accommodative and pupillary responses were measured with videoretinoscope Power Refractor 3 at 50 Hz. Pupil size was largest in the Stroop task (M = 5.20 mm, SD = 0.75 mm), followed by the numerical tasks (M = 5.02 mm, SD = 0.72 mm) and textual tasks (M = 4.78 mm, SD = 0.71 mm). Accommodative fluctuations – measured as accommodation SD – were largest in the textual tasks (M = 0.67 D, SD = 0.34 D), followed by the numerical tasks (M = 0.61 D, SD = 0.40 D) and the Stroop task (M = 0.52 D, SD = 0.21 D). In our experiment, short-term cognitive load was associated with altered pupillary and accommodative response to near tasks. In conflicting tasks (Stroop) or in performing continuing calculations, the pupils were larger; in tasks requiring logical reasoning, the accommodative fluctuations were greater. These effects can potentially be associated with current near-point stress and myopia growth models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The maternal brain undergoes significant structural and functional neuroplasticity as well as cognitive adaptations during the peripartum period, which are long-lasting and present throughout the lifespan. The novel challenges of the postpartum period involve increased responsibilities, resulting in an increased cognitive load for new mothers. This cognitive load is increased across the lifespan and dynamically adjusted as the needs of the child grow and change. Long-term exposure to a more complex environment is beneficial for the brains of humans and animals, suggesting that increases in environmental complexity in motherhood may result in increased cognitive reserve in late-life. Profound environmental, hormonal, and neurobiological changes mark the transition to motherhood as a major biosocial life event. Despite the ubiquity of motherhood, the enduring impact of caregiving on cognition and the brain across the lifespan is not well characterized and represents a unique window of opportunity to investigate human neural and cognitive development. By integrating insights from the human and animal maternal brain literatures with theories of cognitive ageing, we outline a framework for understanding maternal neural and cognitive changes across the lifespan. We suggest that the increased cognitive load of motherhood provides an initial challenge during the peripartum period, requiring continuous adaptation; yet when these demands are sustained across the lifespan, they result in increased late-life cognitive reserve. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anaesthetic procedures are complex and subject to human error. Interventions to alleviate medication errors include organised syringe storage trays, but no standardised methods for drug storage have yet been widely implemented. We used experimental psychology methods to explore the potential benefits of colour-coded compartmentalised trays compared with conventional trays in a visual search task. We hypothesised that colour-coded compartmentalised trays would reduce search time and improve error detection for both behavioural and eye-movement responses. We recruited 40 volunteers to identify syringe errors presented in pre-loaded trays for 16 trials in total: 12 error present and four error absent, with eight trials presented for each tray type. Errors were detected faster when presented in the colour-coded compartmentalised trays than in conventional trays (11.1 s vs 13.0 s, respectively; P =0.026). This finding was replicated for correct responses for error-absent trays (13.3 s vs 17.4 s, respectively; P =0.001) and in the verification time of error-absent trays (13.1 s vs 17.2 s, respectively; P =0.001). On error trials, eye-tracking measures revealed more fixations on the drug error for colour-coded compartmentalised trays (5.3 vs 4.3, respectively; P <0.001), whilst more fixations on the drug lists for conventional trays (8.3 vs 7.1, respectively; P =0.010). On error-absent trials, participants spent longer fixating on the conventional trials (7.2 s vs 5.6 s, respectively; P =0.002). Colour-coded compartmentalisation enhanced visual search efficacy of pre-loaded trays. Reduced fixations and fixation times for the loaded tray were shown for colour-coded compartmentalised trays, indicating a reduction in cognitive load. Overall, colour-coded compartmentalised trays were associated with significant performance improvements when compared with conventional trays. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Self-report, fNIRS and gaze data reflected cognitive demands when driving. • Drivers' gaze behaviour changed under cognitively demanding conditions. • Driving performance can be maintained under dual-task conditions. • Working memory capacity correlated with driving performance in dual-task conditions. A common cause of road traffic incidents is driver distraction, which can occur when the driver's attention is engaged in a concurrent secondary task. However, the relationship between cognitive demands, individual differences in working memory capacity and driving performance has received little research attention. Using a fixed-base driving simulator, the aim of this study was to use a combination of self-report, functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) and mobile eye tracking data to investigate the impact of cognitive load on drivers' gaze behaviour and driving performance, as well as explore the relationship between working memory capacity and driving performance under increased cognitive load. Twenty-one participants with a range of driving experiences (e.g., 0–14 h per week) completed a simulated driving task in a simple environment (i.e., country highway) under single-task (driving only) and dual-task (driving + modified 2-back task) conditions. Cognitive load was assessed via fNIRS data that manifested as changes in regional oxygen saturation (rSO 2) in prefrontal cortex as well as self-report data of perceived mental effort. Participants' working memory capacity was assessed using the Operation Span Task. Findings showed that prefrontal rSO 2 and perceived mental effort was significantly greater under dual-task conditions compared to the single-task condition. In the dual-task condition, participants' gaze dwelled for longer on the road and they made fewer fixations, of longer durations. Participants were able to maintain driving performance in this condition, although this was at the expense of secondary task performance. Interestingly, driving infractions under dual-task conditions were negatively correlated with participants' working memory capacity. The findings suggest that engaging with distracting secondary tasks while driving may increase drivers' cognitive load and change their gaze behaviour. Driving performance can seemingly be maintained under such conditions, but this may be partly determined by the driver's working memory capacity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The primary interface for communication between pilots and aircraft systems is the fighter cockpit Human-Machine Interface (HMI). Since reduced cognitive load ensures that pilots will operate the aircraft safely and effectively, it is critical to evaluate pilot cognitive load during HMI. A cognitive load assessment method, based on multi-criteria decision-making, is proposed to accurately quantify the relationship between the HMI and the cognitive load in the fighter's cockpit. Firstly, based on the integrated Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) method, the Step-wise Weight Assessment Ratio Analysis (SWARA) and MEthod based on the Removal Effects of Criteria (MEREC) methods are used to assign subjective and objective weights, respectively. Moreover, the Combined Compromise Solution (CoCoSo) method is applied to rank the scenarios to establish a cognitive load assessment model for the cockpit HMI of the fighter jet. Secondly, an evaluation standard system of fighter cockpit HMI is proposed, drawn upon multiple sets of eye-movement criteria and subjective assessment criteria. Moreover, cognitive load experiments of fighter cockpit HMI are conducted using eye-tracking technology to get the objective physiological cognitive data as well as the subjective assessment data of the subjects. Consequently, the parameter data sets of the eye-movement criteria and the subjective criteria for the evaluation of cognitive load are obtained. The proposed method is applied to analyze the cognitive load assessment of a fighter jet cockpit HMI layout. This application aims to verify the effectiveness of the assessment method in evaluating the cognitive load of the HMI layout. Through sensitivity and comparison analyses, the model was further verified to have excellent robustness and applicability for cognitive load assessment. The advantages of this method can be seen through the comparison, which is that it has higher discriminability when assessing the degree of cognitive load. At the same time, it has higher flexibility in dealing with complex and ambiguous cognitive load assessment information. • Proposed a framework to assess cognitive load of fighter cockpit interfaces using an integrated MCDM methodology. • Developed a new model combining SWARA for subjective and MEREC for objective weights. • Applied this framework to fighter cockpit cognitive load experiments, demonstrating its effectiveness and value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Both humans and social animals live in groups and are frequently forced to choose between options with different qualities. When there are no leader agents controlling the group decision, consensus can be achieved through repeated interactions among group members. Various studies on collective decision-making illustrate how the dynamics of the opinions are determined by the structure of the social network and the methods that individuals use to share and update their opinion upon a social interaction. In this paper, we are interested in further exploring how cognitive, social, and environmental factors interactively contribute to determining the outcome of a collective best-of- n decision process involving asymmetric options, i.e., different costs and/or benefits for each option. We propose and study a novel model capturing those different factors, (i) the cognitive load in processing social information, (ii) the number of zealots (i.e., asocial agents who never change their opinion), (iii) the option qualities, (iv) the social connectivity structure, and (v) the degree centrality of the asocial agents (i.e., the number of neighbours). By using the heterogeneous mean-field approach, we study the impact of the above-mentioned factors in the decision dynamics. Our findings indicate that when susceptible agents, i.e., individuals who change their opinion to conform with others, use the voter model as a mechanism to update their opinion, both the number and the degree of connectivity of the zealots can lead the population to converge towards the lowest quality option. Instead, when susceptible agents use methods demanding a larger cognitive cost (e.g., the majority rule), the group is marginally impacted by the presence of zealots. The results of the analytical model are complemented and extended by agent-based simulations. Our analysis also shows that the network topology can modulate the influence of zealots on group dynamics. In fact, in homogeneous networks where all nodes have the same degree, any location of the zealots has similar impact on the group dynamics. Instead, when the network is heterogeneous, our simulations confirm the model predictions showing that placing the zealots in the network hubs (nodes with several neighbours) has a much larger impact than placing them in lower-degree nodes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Learning materials are often enriched with interesting facts that are only superficially related to the learning topic to increase student motivation. However, research suggests that such seductive details rather impair learning. Seductive details can convey a positive or negative valence, for example, when explaining advantages or disadvantages of nuclear energy. It was assumed that such seductive details are especially detrimental to learning when learners hold contrary attitudes, as cognitive conflict and dissonance could be triggered. In an experimental study, 123 university students read a text about the functioning of nuclear power plants, either without, with positive, or with negative seductive details. Results showed: the more positive learners' attitudes, the more detrimental was the inclusion of negative seductive details to learning. The inclusion of positive seductive details was detrimental regardless of learners' attitudes. Furthermore, measures of task-irrelevant thinking and extraneous cognitive load mediated detrimental effects of seductive details on learning performance. This study showed that explaining disadvantages of nuclear power plants in addition to explaining their functioning, is especially detrimental to recalling the functioning when learners are proponents of nuclear energy. The results suggest to avoid the inclusion of valenced side notes related to polarizing topics in learning environments that set a thematically different learning goal. Considering individual attitudes towards learning topics can be important when designing instructional media. • Seductive details are interesting but irrelevant adjuncts in learning materials. • Negative seductive details impair learning more if learners hold positive attitudes. • Seductive details impair learning indirectly via task-irrelevant thinking. • Seductive details impair learning indirectly via extraneous cognitive load. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Embodied learning has garnered significant attention in recent years. However, controversy on the effectiveness of embodied learning in improving learning performance and reducing cognitive load. Through a meta-analysis synthesized 17 studies involving 21 experiments with 1046 participants, this study found that embodied learning significantly improved academic performance (g = 0.52, P < 0.001) and reduced cognitive load (g = −0.31, P < 0.001). Subgroup analysis and meta-regression results show that the effectiveness is different when applying embodied learning in different districts, participants' educational levels, types of learning performance, and types of cognitive load. In addition, this study develops a novel cost-benefit model of embodied learning to explain under which circumstances embodied learning can achieve its effectiveness, and summarizes key considerations for using embodied learning strategies. Researchers and educators on embodied learning can continue to improve the design of embodied learning strategies based on the findings of this study. Through the meta-analysis, this study found that embodied learning significantly improved learning performance and significantly reduced cognitive load. In addition, while exploring the moderate effects of district, type of learning performance, type of cognitive load, and participants' education level on the effectiveness of embodied learning, this study elaborated on the perspective that embodied learning follows the cost-benefit model. The results of this study not only support embodied learning as an effective learning strategy, but also identify factors that influence its effectiveness, and especially the proposed cost-benefit model of embodied learning provides an important framework for embodied learning researchers to future design and application of embodied learning strategies. • Embodied learning significantly improved learning performance. • Embodied learning significantly reduced cognitive load. • The effectiveness of embodied learning can moderated by various factors. • The effectiveness of embodied learning follows the Cost-Benefit Model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Radiologists must utilize medical images of multiple modalities for tumor segmentation and diagnosis due to the limitations of medical imaging technology and the diversity of tumor signals. This has led to the development of multimodal learning in medical image segmentation. However, the redundancy among modalities creates challenges for existing subtraction -based joint learning methods, such as misjudging the importance of modalities, ignoring specific modal information, and increasing cognitive load. These thorny issues ultimately decrease segmentation accuracy and increase the risk of overfitting. This paper presents the complementary information mutual learning (CIML) framework, which can mathematically model and address the negative impact of inter-modal redundant information. CIML adopts the idea of addition and removes inter-modal redundant information through inductive bias-driven task decomposition and message passing-based redundancy filtering. CIML first decomposes the multimodal segmentation task into multiple subtasks based on expert prior knowledge, minimizing the information dependence between modalities. Furthermore, CIML introduces a scheme in which each modality can extract information from other modalities additively through message passing. To achieve non-redundancy of extracted information, the redundant filtering is transformed into complementary information learning inspired by the variational information bottleneck. The complementary information learning procedure can be efficiently solved by variational inference and cross-modal spatial attention. Numerical results from the verification task and standard benchmarks indicate that CIML efficiently removes redundant information between modalities, outperforming SOTA methods regarding validation accuracy and segmentation effect. To emphasize, message-passing-based redundancy filtering allows neural network visualization techniques to visualize the knowledge relationship among different modalities, which reflects interpretability. • A redundancy-reducing framework is proposed to improve medical image segmentation. • Redundancy is pruned by extracting complementary info using mutual info optimization. • Complementary information can also enhance interpretability via visualization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Problem-solving encourages learners to engage in deep knowledge processing. However, merely providing problem-solving activities without considering task complexity may not optimize learning. The present study analyzed the effects of task complexity (consistently high vs. gradually increasing) on performance, germane cognitive load, meta-awareness, and intrinsic interest using a learning task conducted in a laboratory. We analyzed data collected from 98 graduate and ungraduated university students (N = 98; M age = 21.22 years, SD = 3.03). The study comprised a main session and a post-test. During the main session participants completed a problem-solving task either with consistently high complexity or gradually increasing complexity. During the post-test all participants solved the task once with high complexity. Metacognition (regulation, knowledge), germane cognitive load, meta-awareness, and intrinsic interest were assessed by self-evaluation questionnaires. The findings indicated positive effects of consistently high complexity on immediate performance, germane cognitive load, and meta-awareness. Additionally, an important relationship between metacognition (regulation, knowledge) and meta-awareness was identified when learning with gradually increasing complexity. However, no impact of task complexity on intrinsic interest was found. The findings suggest that exposing learners to consistently high complexity tasks can have beneficial effects on learning without negatively influencing intrinsic interest. • Tasks with consistently high complexity improve immediate performance. • High complexity positively impacts germane cognitive load and meta-awareness. • Consistently high complexity benefits learners with low metacognition. • Task complexity has no impact on learners' intrinsic interest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]