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Accumulation of Ca in several fleshy fruit is often supposed to depend, among others, by climatic variables driving fruit transpiration. This study tests the whole causal chain hypothesis: VPD → fruit transpiration → Ca accumulation . Also there are evidences that relationship between fruit transpiration and Ca content is not always clear, hence the hypothesis that low VPD reduces the fraction of xylemic water destined to transpiration was tested by examining the water budget of fruit. Attached fruits of Actinidia deliciosa were subjected to Low ( L ) and High ( H ) VPD . Their transpiration was measured from early after fruit-set to day 157 after full bloom (DAFB). Fruits were picked at 70, 130 and 157 DAFB for Ca and K determinations and for water budget analysis. Cumulative transpired water was ∼70 g and ∼16 g H 2 O f −1 in H VPD and L VPD , respectively. Calcium accumulated linearly ( R 2 = 0.71) with cumulative transpiration when VPD was high, while correlation was weaker ( R 2 = 0.24) under L VPD . Under low VPD the fraction of xylem stream destined to transpiration declined to 40–50%. Results suggest that Ca accumulation is coupled to cumulative transpiration under high VPD because under that condition cumulative transpiration equals xylem stream (which carry the nutrient). At L VPD , Ca gain by fruit is uncoupled from transpiration because ∼60% of the xylemic water is needed to sustain fruit growth. Results will apply to most fruits (apples, tomatoes, capsicum, grapes etc.) since most suffer Ca deficiency disorders and grow in changing environments with variable VPD , also they could be supportive for the implementation of fruit quality models accounting also for mineral compositions and for a reinterpretation of certain field practices aimed at naturally improve fruit Ca content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Olive tree (Olea europaea L.) is commonly grown under environmental conditions characterised by water deficit, high temperatures and irradiance levels typical of Mediterranean semi-arid regions. Measurement of gas exchange, chlorophyll content, chlorophyll fluorescence and photoinhibition was carried out on two-year-old olive trees (cv. ‘Coratina’) subjected to a 21-day period of water deficit followed by 23 days of rewatering. At the beginning of the experiment, plants were divided in to two groups and subjected to different light regimes: exposed plants (EP) under a mean photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) at mid-day of 1800μmolm−2 s−1 and shaded plants (SP) under a mean PAR of 1200μmolm−2 s−1. The effect of drought and high irradiance levels caused a reduction of gas exchange and photosystem 2 (PSII) efficiency, in terms of quantum yield of PSII (Φ PSII) both in EP and SP. Shading conditions allowed plants to maintain a high photosynthetic activity at low values of stomatal conductance, whereas in EP the reductions in photosynthetic efficiency and intrinsic water efficiency were due to non-stomatal components of photosynthesis. The decrease in photosynthetic activity and the increase of photoinhibition under drought were more marked in EP than in SP. Full sunlight caused in EP a higher non-photochemical quenching, whereas SP showed a better photochemical efficiency. The information here obtained can be important to understand the mechanisms by which olive plants can minimize photoinhibition when subjected to simultaneous abiotic stresses. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Calcium (Ca) is an essential plant nutrient involved in determining fruit quality of several fruits, including kiwifruit. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the influence of light intensity on transpiration and water flow into fruit of kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa var. deliciosa, C.F. Liang et A.R. Ferguson) and the resulting effects on Ca accumulation. At fruit-set two light treatments were imposed on single canes. The exposed treatment was maintained through summer pruning, while the shade treatment was imposed using shade cloth. Fruit transpiration was measured on attached fruit using a portable photosynthesis system. The inflow of water into the fruit via the xylem was estimated from fruit transpiration and its relationship with fruit Ca accumulation determined. The concentration of Ca was measured in xylem sap extracted using a Scholander pressure chamber. Following the first 40–50 days after fruit-set (AFS) the cumulative xylem water inflow into the fruit increased exponentially in both treatments, but by the end of the growing season the total influx was 30% higher in the exposed treatment than in the shaded treatment, reaching 140g per fruit. The shade treatment influenced the concentration of Ca, causing accumulation in the fruit to be about 50% of that in the exposed treatment. Our results suggest that transpiration is not the only factor controlling Ca transport, and that light also influenced the Ca concentration in xylem sap. Taking into account that auxin is able to stimulate Ca uptake and that light promotes the biosynthesis of auxin protecting phenols (hydroxycinnamic acids), a new working hypothesis is proposed: light, induces the biosynthesis of such phenols, indirectly decreases auxin degradation, and therefore, increases Ca accumulation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The effects of water recovery on the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD; EC 1.15.1.1), catalase (CAT; EC 1.11.1.6), ascorbate peroxidase (APX; EC 1.11.1.11), guaiacol peroxidase (POD; EC 1.11.1.7), polyphenol oxidase (PPO; EC 1.30.3.1) and lipoxygenase (LOX; EC 1.13.11.12), and on malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were investigated in 2-year-old Olea europaea L. (cv. “Coratina”) plants grown in environmental conditions characterized by high temperatures and irradiance levels and gradually subjected to a controlled water deficit. After reaching the maximum level of water stress, plants were subjected to a rewatering treatment for 30 days, under both environmental irradiance and semi-shade conditions. The activities of SOD, CAT, APX, POD and LOX, and MDA levels decreased during the rewatering period in both leaves and roots and these decrements were faster in plants rewatered in semi-shade conditions (SHP) than in plants under environmental light (NSHP). In contrast, PPO activity increased during rewatering in both leaf and root tissues. Thus, the lower expression of the enzymatic antioxidant system in SHP with respect to NSHP may be due to a reduced need of activated oxygen species removal. On the contrary, in NSHP, higher enzyme activities are required for a better protection against a more pronounced oxidative stress. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In C 3 plants, carbon isotope composition (δ13C) is influenced by isotopic effects during diffusion from the atmosphere to the chloroplasts and carboxylation reactions. This work aimed to demonstrate if δ13C of leaf soluble carbohydrates (δ13C leaves) and of dry matter from new-growth shoots (δ13C shoots) of Prunus plants subjected to a period of water deficit was related to water use efficiency (WUE). For this purpose, three interspecific Prunus hybrids rootstocks (6–5, 7-7 and G × N) were gradually subjected to drought and then rewatered. Soil water content (SWC) decreased from 26.1 to 9.4% after 70 days of water shortage, when plants reached values of predawn leaf water potential (LWP) ranging from −3.12 to −4.00 MPa. Gas exchange, particularly net photosynthetic and transpiration rates, differed among the three hybrids, leading to different values of WUE. After 70 days of drought, a significant δ13C increase of 5.86, 4.28 and 4.99‰ was observed in 6–5, 7-7 and G × N, respectively. Significant correlations between δ13C and other parameters (substomatal CO 2 /atmospheric CO 2 ratio, stomatal conductance and stem water potential) were found in all hybrids. The rewatering phase caused a recovery of the physiological status of the plants. The isotope composition of δ13C shoots was correlated with the average WUE measured during the whole experiment. δ13C leaves and δ13C shoots were positively related (r = 0.87; p < 0.001). The isotopic signature was a reliable screening tool to identify Prunus genotypes tolerant to drought stress. The results suggest the possibility of using δ13C as an integrated indicator of level of drought stress in plants subjected to prolonged stress conditions. • Three interspecific Prunus hybrids were subjected to drought and then rewatered. • Plant water status and gas exchange were followed throughout the trial. • δ13C was measured in leaf soluble carbohydrates and dry matter of new-growth shoots. • δ13C was closely and positively related to WUE and other physiological parameters. • The isotopic signature can be a reliable screening tool to identify genotypes tolerant to drought among Prunus genotypes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The activities of ascorbate peroxidase (APX, EC 1.11.1.11), monodehydroascorbate reductase (MDHAR, EC 1.6.5.4), dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR, EC 1.8.5.1) and glutathione reductase (GR, EC 1.6.4.2), as well as the levels of ascorbate pool, glutathione pool and H2O2 were studied in plants of four interspecific Prunus hybrids subjected to water deficit and shade conditions. After 70 days of water shortage, plants were subjected to a rewatering treatment. During water recovery, leaves fully exposed to sunlight and leaves in shade conditions of about 30% of environmental irradiance were sampled. After 70 days without irrigation, mean pre-dawn leaf water potential of all the hybrids fell from −0.34 to −3.30MPa and marked decreases in net photosynthesis and transpiration occurred. The activities of APX, MDHAR, DHAR and GR increased in relation to the severity of drought stress in all the clones studied. Generally, APX, MDHAR, DHAR and GR were down-regulated during the rewatering phase and their activities decreased faster in shaded leaves than in non-shaded leaves. The levels of total ascorbate, total glutathione and H2O2 were directly related to the increase of drought stress and subsequently decreased during rewatering. This response could limit cellular damage caused by active oxygen species during periods of water deficit. The ability of Prunus hybrids to regulate the enzymatic antioxidant system during different water and irradiance conditions might be an important attribute linked to drought tolerance. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In conventional olive growing, frequent soil tillage strongly reduces the complexity and diversity of the agro-ecosystem. Here, a metabolomic analysis was carried out on the xylem sap (XS) of olive plants (Olea europaea L.) from a grove located in Southern Italy (Basilicata region). The orchard has been divided in two plots that have been managed for 18 years with two different systems: a) 'sustainable management' (S mng), with no-tillage, fertigation and internal C-inputs (spontaneous weeds and pruning residues), and b) an adjacent rainfed 'conventional management' (C mng), that included soil tillage and mineral fertilization. The XS was extracted from olive shoots in two sampling times (ST1: May; ST2: October) using a Sholander pressure chamber, and its metabolome analyzed by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) coupled to a hybrid quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometer (QTOF-MS). The discriminating compounds were 94 at ST1 and 119 at ST2, and 35 of them were in common between the two sampling times. The majority of the discriminating metabolites (73 on 94 at ST1, and 109 on 119 at ST2) were found at higher concentration in the XS of S mng plants, compared to that of C mng ones. Most of the discriminating metabolites found in XS (about 80%, both at ST1 and ST2) were involved in plant secondary metabolism, mainly for plant chemical defense, growth regulation and signal transduction. The most prevailing class of compounds included terpenoids, phytohormones, alkaloids, sterols/steroids, retinols/retinoids, tocopherols and carotenoids. For the first time, we have demonstrated that the XS of a tree crop significantly responds to a shift of soil management. Generally, the plants of the S mng plot showed an up-regulated secondary metabolism. The results of our study encourage the use of a set of sustainable agricultural practices in a productive orchard, in order to enhance plant physiological status, increase yield quantity/quality, safeguard the environment and ameliorate human health. • Olive plants were managed by a sustainable (S mng) or a conventional (C mng) system. • A metabolomic analysis (UHPLC/QTOF-MS) of extracted xylem sap was conducted. • Deep differences in xylem sap composition were observed between S mng and C mng. • The plants from the S mng showed an up-regulated secondary metabolism. • The xylem sap of olive trees responded to a shift of soil management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graphical abstract Highlights • A sustainable (S mng) and a conventional (C mng) olive orchard were compared. • Pedological, chemical, and microbiological analyses on soils were carried out. • S mng showed a higher soil C and N in the topsoil layers, and lower pH. • N-cycling bacteria were higher in S mng but bacterial diversity did not change. • A new sustainable approach for optimizing soil C and N cycling is proposed. Abstract Under Mediterranean type climates, a sustainable soil management aimed at increasing soil organic carbon and microbiological diversity is of key importance. The aim of this study was to characterize and compare soils from a mature Mediterranean olive (Olea europaea L.) orchard subjected to two different soil management systems (sustainable, S mng , and conventional, C mng) for 18 years. Composite soil samples were analyzed qualitatively (pedological determinations) and quantitatively (soil C, N and pH). Bacterial metabolic activity and diversity were evaluated spectrophometrically by the Biolog® assay, while 16S-based metagenomics analysis was used to analyse the abundance of N-cycling bacteria. From the general analysis of the data obtained by the study of soil profiles and litter, C and N dynamics, and the genetic and functional diversity of soil bacteria, it emerged that the S mng system caused an improvement in soil organic matter in the topsoil layers, compared to the C mng system, with consequent increases in the abundance of soil N-cycling bacteria but without affecting the indices related to total bacterial metabolic activity and diversity. The results obtained could promote the development of new approaches for optimizing soil carbon cycling, managing nutrient transport, and sustaining and improving olive yield and quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Under suitable conditions, low-quality, treated urban wastewater (TWW) is an additional water resource for irrigation in water-scarce environments but its use in agriculture requires a careful monitoring of a range of hygiene parameters, including human pathogenic bacteria (HPB). DNA-based microbiological analyses on soil, xylem sap, and leaves surface (phyllosphere) were carried out in an olive (Olea europaea L.) grove located in Southern Italy (Basilicata region). The experimental grove has been managed in two plots for 18 years. The experimental plot (WW tr) was drip irrigated daily with TWW (2800 m3 ha−1 year−1), while the control plot (RF tr) was rainfed. The results of the 16S-rRNA-based metagenomic analysis demonstrated that the phyllosphere had the lowest number of potential HPB (6), compared to soil (22) and xylem (26) compartments. Gammaproteobacteria, including potential HPB, like Pseudomonas and Acinetobacter spp., were significantly higher in WW tr soil and xylem sap, compared to RF tr. A similar trend was observed for Burkholderia spp. (Betaproteobacteria) and Mycobacterium spp. (Actinobacteria). The Firmicutes Enterococcus , Staphylococcus and Streptococcus spp. were more abundant in WW tr xylem sap. The pathogenic Clostridium perfringens was found higher on WW tr leaves (relative abundance 7.17 in WW tr and 1.33 in RF tr) and Enterococcus faecalis in WW tr xylem sap (93.22 in WW tr and 7.08 in RF tr). On the basis of the results obtained, the irrigation with TWW can be considered a realistic and safe agronomic practice in Mediterranean orchards, and an opportunity for farmers and consumers. Graphical abstract Unlabelled Image Highlights • Treated urban wastewater (TWW) can contain human pathogenic bacteria (HPB). • A TWW-irrigated (WW tr) and a rainfed (RF tr) olive orchard were compared. • 16S-rRNA-microbiological analyses on soil, xylem sap, and phyllosphere were done. • WW tr soil contained more potential HPB than xylem sap and phyllosphere. • Urban TWW, if adequately-treated and applied, does not constitute health risks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the study was to investigate the influence of management practices on the global warming impact of some perennial fruit crops. The global warming potential (GWP) of single operations during a fresh fruit production under local conventional management ( C mng ) and the mitigation potential of introducing sustainable management practices ( S mng ) were assessed. A life cycle assessment analysis (ISO 14067) was performed for the whole life cycle of pilot apricot and peach orchards in Southern Italy (3 sites), taking into account greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions related to all annual agricultural operations, orchard establishment and removal. Results revealed that fertilization shared the highest fraction of GWP (from 22.4% to 60.5%) among all agricultural operations in both C mng and S mng scenarios. The adoption of S mng had a reduction of GWP ranging from 1% to 17%. When accounting for SOC change (modelled through Roth-C) after the S mng application and for recycling the permanent biomass of trees at the end-of-life of the orchard, the GWP can become negative ranging from approx. −0.8 to −4.2 kg CO 2 eq. per ton of fruit. The estimated average mitigation potential of adopting S mng practices was −2.7 t CO 2 eq. ha −1 yr −1 , and derives mostly from soil carbon storage capacity. The adoption of S mng practices could be considered within GHGs mitigation policies for the agricultural sector, if assessed at landscape level. Composting, as a possible scenario for the disposal of the tree biomass at the end of the orchard life cycle, results to have a higher GWP impact than burning it for home heating purposes. However, the improvement of soil quality and of the related ecosystem services of using compost for agricultural purposes should promote the spread of composting practices and the multiplication of composting facilities in Southern Italy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main objective of this study was to apply microbial indicators of soil quality in drip-irrigated olive and peach orchards managed with sustainable agricultural practices. Soil characterization was carried out in different areas of the orchards along the row, under the drippers (R dr ), and along the inter-row, rainfed (IR rf ), to evaluate the effects of irrigation. Two parameters were followed during one year: a) a biochemical soil indicator (N c /N k ratio) based on soil N/C turnover and soil enzyme activities, and b) the abundance of three important N-cycling genes ( nifH , amoA and nosZ ). Localized irrigation caused higher values of water content in the R dr areas, compared to IR rf . The N c /N k ratio exhibited all the attributes of a reliable soil fertility indicator, being generally higher in irrigated R dr areas. The abundance of nifH and amoA in the soil showed a trend similar to N c /N k , being affected by higher soil water content, while nosZ abundance was generally insensitive to irrigation. Both N c /N k and gene abundances, much more than the measured chemical, biochemical and molecular soil parameters considered alone, can give a precise idea on N and C soil dynamics, that in turn, affect soil quality and fertility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agriculture is not only appointed to produce food but has the potential to provide a range of ecosystem services (ES) depending on the management options adopted at field scale. Information on the impact of management practices adopted in fruit tree crops on ES is fragmented and often not fully codified. This paper focuses on some Mediterranean fruit tree crops i.e. peach ( Prunus persica ), apricot ( Prunus armeniaca ), olive ( Olea europaea ) groves and vineyards ( Vitis vinifera ), and links mainly soil processes and functions to the provisioning, regulating and sociocultural ES. The effects of field practices (e.g., tillage/no-tillage, cover crops, retention/burning of pruning residues, mineral/organic fertilization) on manageable soil properties (e.g., porosity, organic carbon content, composition of microbial community) and related functions (e.g., supply of nutrients, water storage, soil stability, above-ground biodiversity) were examined. The analysis draws the attention to the pivotal role of the soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks on soil aggregates and erodibility, soil water storage, use of fresh water for irrigation, plant nutrition, biodiversity, nutrient storage and absorption of pesticides. Sociocultural services delivered by tree crops are also discussed. This paper highlights the dependence of ES on the sustainable field practices adopted, particularly those aimed at increasing SOC stocks (e.g., no tillage, increased carbon input, recycling of pruning residuals, cover crops). The outcomes presented may strengthen the significance of increasing SOC management practices for fruit tree crops and be supportive of the implementation of environmentally friendly policies assisting in the conservation or the improvement of the soil natural capital. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The soil organic carbon (SOC) content of many Mediterranean soils is low (∼1%) and this hinders both economic and ecologic progress. The climate in much of the Mediterranean region (low annual precipitation, cool wet winters, hot dry summers), combined with traditional agricultural practices has a major impact on the carbon (C) cycle. To increase our knowledge of C fluxes in Mediterranean agro-ecosystems, this paper examines the effects on the soil and biome C budgets of a peach ( Prunus persica L. Batsch) orchard, seven years after adopting sustainable management practices ( S mng ). The result is compared with the continued use of locally conventional management practices ( C mng ). Sustainable management involved zero-tillage, weed mowing, retention of above-ground residues and the import of organic amendments, while C mng involved tillage, removal of pruning residues and the application of mineral fertilisers. The annual net ecosystem production (NEP) was determined through field measurements of soil respiration (Li-6400, LI-COR, USA) and above- and below-ground biomass sampling. The mean annual NEP was close to 320 and 475 g C m −2 yr −1 in the C mng and S mng plots, respectively. As managed ecosystems, anthropogenic C imports/exports and related changes of soil C pool were then accounted for through the net ecosystem C balance (NECB). The NECB approximated 90 g C m −2 yr −1 for C mng and 730 g C m −2 yr −1 for S mng . This result highlights the critical role of appropriate management of the variable components on sustaining ecosystem resilience, including the management of pruning residues, the import of organic materials, and the maintenance of a cover crop. Over a 7-year study period, C stock (SOC and litter) increased at a mean rate of ∼145 g C m −2 yr −1 in the S mng plot while it increased at only ∼7.5 g C m −2 yr −1 in the C mng plot. Whole-tree standing biomass was measured by tree excavation revealing that the C sequestered over the 14-year lifetime of the orchard was close to 25 t C ha −1 . This study provides information on C stock variation (soil + biome) and on annual net atmospheric C removal (NEP) in a cultivated peach orchard under Mediterranean climate conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Trichoderma harzianum strain T-22 (T22) has the ability of enhancing root growth and plant development. The aim of this research is to explain the biochemical basis of the direct plant-growth-promoting activity of T22. Seven days after the transfer to root-inducing medium, in vitro-cultured shoots of GiSeLa6® (Prunus cerasus × Prunus canescens), an important Prunus rootstock for sweet and sour cherry varieties, were inoculated with T22. Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), trans-zeatin riboside (t-ZR) and dihydrozeatin riboside (DHZR) were analyzed by a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Acidification of the medium by plant, T22, and plant+T22 were assessed by three pH indicators, whereas root morphological changes were observed by light and epifluorescence microscopic analysis. The results showed that after T22-inoculation, IAA in leaves and roots significantly increased by 148 and 122%, respectively, whereas DHZR decreased by 83%. Increases in t-ZR were found only in leaves (88%). The ratios auxin/cytokinins changed from 28.5 to 46.6 in leaves, and from 15.0 to 21.2 in roots of un-inoculated and T22-inoculated plants, respectively. Root activity determined a decline of medium acidity, and this effect was more marked in T22-inoculated plants (up to pH 4). Microscopic analysis revealed changes in root cell wall suberification in the exoderm and endoderm, with an increase in suberized cellular layers from 1 to 2–3, and an enhancement of cell wall epifluorescence. During the acclimatisation phase of nursery processes, all these T22-induced changes constitute an advantage, as inoculated plants could acclimatise better, so increasing plant survival in the absence of pesticides. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In Marlborough, New Zealand, olives are becoming an important crop alongside grapes. However, despite olives being drought resistant, they are generally planted on the poorer free-draining soils. Also, with the strong increase in cropping area, the demand for irrigation water has increased dramatically. In this research, we investigate the impact of short-term water stress on plant physiological processes, crop yield and oil quality in Marlborough, New Zealand. For that purpose, during the dry summer of 2000–2001, two trees were kept without irrigation for 64 days while two neighbouring trees were irrigated following standard practice. The trees were measured for transpiration (E), leaf and stem water potential (Ψ L and Ψ S ), every other day, from dawn to dusk for three weeks from just before irrigation was started up again. All four trees were wired up for measuring stem sap flow (T) which was recorded hourly and a basic meteorological station provided weather data. Fruit and shoot development was measured weekly. It was found that under the short period of dry conditions with soil moisture (() dropping to <5%, olive trees kept functioning at a very low level with Ψ L and Ψ S reduced from −1 to <−4.0MPa (T) reduced from 20 to 5mm/h and (E) reduced from 1.5 to 1.0mmolm−2 s−1. Within 10 days of restarting irrigation all these parameters were back to pre-drought levels. Both fruit and shoot growth came to a standstill within a week after drought was induced. During the first few days after re-watering, a high variability in Ψ L was found between leaves from the same trees. This variability disappeared after ∼six days. Shoot growth did not recover after re-watering but fruit growth rate, became the same as for continuously irrigated trees within days, but fruit size did not manage to recover before harvest. Yield from the dry trees was low because berry and pit weight were reduced by almost 50% at harvest, had a lower oil and percentage and were lower in phenolics. Stem sap flow was found to give a very good continuous measurement for the hydration status of the olive trees. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Agricultural practices can play an important role in atmospheric CO2 emission and fixation. In this study, we present results on carbon fluxes in the biomass of two typical Mediterranean orchards indicating that proper canopy management coupled with other agricultural techniques could increase the absorption of atmospheric CO2 and its storage. We also discuss the potential environmental contribution of the orchards to enhancement of both soil and air quality. Trials were carried out in southern Italy on olive (Olea europaea L.) and peach orchards (Prunus persica L.) at different age and plant densities. At the end of each vegetative season, values of fixed atmospheric CO2 were calculated by measuring dry matter accumulation and partitioning in the different plant organs. In the early years, sequestered CO2 was primarily distributed in the permanent structures and in the root system while in mature orchards the fixed CO2 was distributed in leaves, pruning materials and fruit. Significant differences in amounts of fixed CO2 were observed in peach orchards cultivated using different planting and training strategies. The results underline the importance of training system, plant density and cultivation techniques in the absorption of atmospheric CO2 and its storage as organic matter in the soil. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]