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1. Species richness is unrivalled as the most reported biodiversity metric in ecological and conservation research. Unfortunately, species richness ignores the scale-dependency of biodiversity. 2. We propose the metric uniquity , a quantitative and spatially scalable measure of uniqueness of a site based on a species-by-site matrix and a site-by-habitat type classification with area weights for habitat types correcting for sampling biases. 3. An example of uniquity is presented using vascular plant data from 130 sites representing a larger region (Denmark). We demonstrate the importance of the scale parameter of uniquity for the prediction of independent uniqueness indices calculated from species distribution data and the number of recorded red listed species. 4. We compare the performance of uniquity with the performance of the indices Local Contribution to Beta Diversity (LCBD) and Range Rarity Richness (RRR), and we investigate its sensitivity to small sample size and poorly resolved habitat classification. 5. We assess the performance of the uniquity metric applied to DNA metabarcoding data for plants, fungi and eukaryotes from the same set of study sites. 6. Uniquity is a strong predictor of site uniqueness based on national distribution data and also correlates neatly with the observed number of red listed species. Uniquity based on DNA metabarcoding corresponds well with the number of red listed species observed. 7. Perspective: Uniquity is generally applicable to biotas sampled with comparable effort, including field inventories, trap sampling, and DNA metabarcoding data. To our knowledge uniquity is the first index of uniqueness that explicitly considers spatial scale and sampling biases, while simultaneously accepting non-annotated DNA-data as input. Based on our study we offer general recommendations for further use and testing of uniquity as conservation value metric. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The conservation status of European temperate forests is overall unfavorable, and many associated species are listed in national or European red-lists. A better understanding of factors increasing survival probability of red-listed species is needed for a more efficient conservation effort. Here, we investigated the importance of current forest cover, historical forest cover and a number of soil and climate variables on the incidence and richness of red-listed forest species in Denmark. We considered eight major taxa separately (mammals, saproxylic beetles, butterflies, vascular plants and four groups of fungi), using mainly citizen science data from several national mapping projects. Taxa were selected to represent important forest habitats or properties (soil, dead wood, forest glades and landscape context) and differ in dispersal potential and trophic strategy. For all groups, presence and richness of red-listed species was positively related with current forest cover, but - for most taxa - forest cover 200 years ago was an even better predictor. The intersection of past and current deciduous forest was used to identify the area of continuous, lost and new forest. Continuous and lost deciduous forest cover were strong predictors of red-listed species occurrence in most groups, but surprisingly species richness of butterflies and hydnoid fungi, and presence of mammals, was significantly, positively affected by coniferous forest area. The positive effect of lost deciduous forests on red-listed species, suggest an extinction debt of at least 200 years, with some areas hosting more red-listed species than the current area of old forest can sustain in the long run. Our results suggest that current priorities for forest conservation in Denmark are not efficient in protecting red-listed forest species, and that more focus should be put on conserving deciduous forest with long continuity. Furthermore, a multi-taxa approach including a wide array of organism groups with contrasting habitat affiliations, results in a more comprehensive understanding of the requirements of red-listed forest species and necessitate a more focused approach to conservation planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High spatial resolution mapping of natural resources is much needed for monitoring and management of species, habitats and landscapes. Generally, detailed surveillance has been conducted as fieldwork, numerical analysis of satellite images or manual interpretation of aerial images, but methods of object-based image analysis (OBIA) and machine learning have recently produced promising examples of automated classifications of aerial imagery. The spatial application potential of such models is however still questionable since the transferability has rarely been evaluated. We investigated the potential of mosaic aerial orthophoto red, green and blue (RGB)/near infrared (NIR) imagery and digital elevation model (DEM) data for mapping very fine-scale vegetation structure in semi-natural terrestrial coastal areas in Denmark. The Random Forest (RF) algorithm, with a wide range of object-derived image and DEM variables, was applied for classification of vegetation structure types using two hierarchical levels of complexity. Models were constructed and validated by cross-validation using three scenarios: (1) training and validation data without spatial separation, (2) training and validation data spatially separated within sites, and (3) training and validation data spatially separated between different sites. Without spatial separation of training and validation data, high classification accuracies of coastal structures of 92.1% and 91.8% were achieved on coarse and fine thematic levels, respectively. When models were applied to spatially separated observations within sites classification accuracies dropped to 85.8% accuracy at the coarse thematic level, and 81.9% at the fine thematic level. When the models were applied to observations from other sites than those trained upon the ability to discriminate vegetation structures was low, with 69.0% and 54.2% accuracy at the coarse and fine thematic levels, respectively. Evaluating classification models with different degrees of spatial correlation between training and validation data was shown to give highly different prediction accuracies, thereby highlighting model transferability and application potential. Aerial image and DEM-based RF models had low transferability to new areas due to lack of representation of aerial image, landscape and vegetation variation in training data. They do, however, show promise at local scale for supporting conservation and management with vegetation mappings of high spatial and thematic detail based on low-cost image data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Implementation of mapping and monitoring is necessary to supply sufficient information to guide an effective management of species, habitats and landscapes. Coastal ecosystems can be difficult to monitor effectively in the field due to spatially discontinuous and unpredictable processes such as encroachment, erosion and succession, while coverage of large extents is very expensive. Remote sensing-based monitoring provides an alternative, but satellite image data is often too expensive or too coarse in spatial resolution to detect fine-scale habitat structures. Using Danish coastal habitats as a case, a method is presented for monitoring habitat types and fine-scale structures, based on integration of field-acquired habitat characteristics with the habitat information interpreted from sub-meter RGB/NIR aerial imagery and digital elevation model data. Initial pilot studies show good correspondence between field-observed structure elements and structures delineated through object-based image analysis, while initial classifications results suggest possibilities of discriminating between different types of shrubs, herb communities and non-vegetated structures. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: It has long been thought that environmental factors determine plant community assembly, but it is now increasingly argued that geographic spatial processes such as dispersal may also matter. Notably, the metacommunity framework considers local communities to be linked by dispersal and different theories hereunder assign varying importance to dispersal limitation and local environmental species sorting. At present the relative importance of these factors across habitats, geographic regions, and spatial scales remains unclear. The present study assessed the relative importance of species sorting by the local environment and broader-scale geographic spatial processes for local plant species composition using a data set of 3924 plots from coastal dunes across a large region (Denmark). We used ordination to identify the main gradients in species composition, and Linear Mixed-Effects modelling (LME) to estimate the relative importance of local environment and multi-scale random geographic factors as determinants of floristic gradients. In addition, we assessed the dependence of species composition on local environment and geographic distance using Mantel tests. The LME analyses found local species sorting to be the dominant determinant in this metacommunity system, with soil moisture, pH, and fertility requirement patterns explaining ≥77% of the compositional gradients, while geographic factors accounted for ≤2%. Partial Mantel tests confirmed this finding, with 31.6% of the variation in species dissimilarity explained by environmental species sorting and just 1.6% by geographical distance. The apparently limited impact of dispersal limitation or other geographic spatial processes may reflect high habitat continuity and efficient dispersal by strong winds and ocean currents in the Danish coastal-dune metacommunity system. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The effect of atmospheric nitrogen deposition on the species richness of acid grasslands was investigated by combining data from a large Danish monitoring program with a large European data set, where a significant non-linear negative effect of nitrogen deposition had been demonstrated (). The nitrogen deposition range in Denmark is relatively small and when only considering the Danish data a non-significant decrease in the species richness with nitrogen deposition was observed. However, when both data sets were combined, then the conclusion of the European survey was further corroborated by the results of the Danish monitoring. Furthermore, by combining the two data sets a more comprehensive picture of the threats to the biodiversity of acid grasslands emerge; i.e., species richness in remnant patches of acid grassland in intensively cultivated agricultural landscapes is under influence not only from nitrogen deposition, but also from current and historical land use. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A method for summarising the degree of spatial covariance (intra-plot correlation) among different plant species using plant abundance data is presented. The method will provide an alternative test of the hypothesis of neutrality in uniform environments, and we apply it in this study to data derived from two different grasslands. There is a significant positive intra-plot correlation in both grasslands that may be due to either sampling effects or deterministic ecological effects. For the calcareous grassland, we also applied the method to a subset of plant species that are expected to be less influenced by sampling effects, and they also has a significant positive intra-plot correlation, which suggests that sampling effects are playing a minor role in the calcareous grassland as an explanation for the spatial aggregated of species. Overall, the results suggest that the deterministic ecological processes that do not contradict the neutral theory are more important than any possible deterministic ecological processes that contradict the neutral theory. Consequently, the hypothesis of neutrality could neither be rejected nor corroborated in the investigated grasslands. We suggest that the spatial aggregation in the sampled calcareous grassland is mainly caused by small local differences in abiotic factors or in the timing of gaps for recolonisation. This in turn may lead to different local niches (ecological adaptation or phenology of establishment from seeds) and possibly local exclusion of plant species by interspecific competition. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The vegetation of abandoned arable fields on dry sandy soils was investigated in 1986 and again in 2000. Comparison of the two data sets by ordination, calibration based on indicator values, and statistical modelling revealed that the vegetation in 2000 differed significantly from the vegetation in 1986. Part of this difference could be explained by field age, but significant difference remained after correction for age. The analysis showed that species indicating nutrient-rich and acidic conditions were more abundant in the 2000 samples than expected from the age of the fields. Possible causes for the observed differences are discussed, and the role of airborne nitrogen deposition and landscape changes is emphasised. Changing course of successional processes may place serious constraints on future habitat restoration. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Despite the important role of fungi for ecosystems, relatively little is known about the factors underlying the dynamics of their diversity. Moreover, studies do not typically consider their dark diversity: the species absent from an otherwise suitable site. Here, we examined potential drivers of local fungal dark diversity in temperate woodland and open habitats using LiDAR and in-situ field measurements, combined with a systematically collected and geographically comprehensive macro-fungi and plant data set. For the first time, we also estimated species pools of fungi by considering both plant and fungi co-occurrences. The most important LiDAR variables for explaining fungal dark diversity were amplitude and echo ratio, which represent vegetation structure. These results suggest that the local fungal dark diversity is highest in production forests like plantations and lowest in more open forests and in open habitats with little woody vegetation. Plant species richness was the strongest explanatory factor overall and negatively correlated with local fungal dark diversity. Soil fertility showed a positive relationship with dark diversity in open habitats. These findings indicate that the local dark diversity of macro-fungi is highest in areas with a relatively high human impact (typically areas with low plant species richness and high soil fertility). Overall, this study brings novel insights into local macro-fungi dark diversity patterns, suggesting that a multitude of drivers related to both soil and vegetation act simultaneously to determine fungal dark diversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We explore explore the Agenda2030 potential for interdisciplinary research. • We apply the SDG, their targets and four basic principle of the Agenda2030 to a national context. • We find that localised and contextualised SDG frameworks contains a great potential as a planning and policy tool/instrument. • We argue that localised and contextualised SDG frameworks should be solid anchored in evidence-based knowledge. • We conclude that the Agenda2030 may facilitate interdisciplinary research on sustainable land use. This article explores the potential of the SDG framework for interdisciplinary research. The aim is to illustrate the process of creating a shared platform of operation by the clarifying the positive and negative interactions between societal demands for land use on a national and local level. The research question is answered by making use of the systemic approach introduced by Niklas Luhmann including his arguments about autopoietic communication systems reproducing themselves. An interdisciplinary research group is firstly applying the SDG framework to the demands for sustainable land use by activating the land consolidation in Denmark. By doing so a 'national framework' anchored in the SDG framework is created. Secondly, the national framework is applied to a multifunctional land consolidation project in a Danish case area. The findings from the mapping of interactions between societal demands on a concrete case area revealed that some indicators and societal demands are more prone to conflicts than others but also on the local level there may be variations. Thus, a localised and contextualised SDG framework has shown useful insight for future projects on sustainable land use including land consolidation projects. The paper concludes that the SDG framework may be used for facilitating interdisciplinary research, however there is also a need for guidelines and examples on how to integrate the framework in academia. The paper offers a suggestion for integrating the Agenda2030 and the SDG framework in projects about sustainable land use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Coastal dunes are dynamic systems maintained and renewed by disturbance. Concerns have been raised over shrub and tree encroachment, changes in species composition and decreasing species richness in coastal dunes with nitrogen (N) deposition and loss of natural dynamics acknowledged as pressures. We tested the effects of N-deposition and disturbance on Danish dune grassland vegetation. We applied simulated trampling, grazing, blowouts and N-deposition in a randomized design to ten sites along the major natural gradient in the area. After three years we recorded plant, bryophyte and lichen biomass as well as species frequency, foliar N and P, soil pH and soil organic matter content. We hypothesized that species richness would increase with disturbance and decrease with N-addition while biomass was expected to increase with N-addition. Disturbance was expected to counteract the effects of N-addition. The hypotheses were tested using linear mixed effects models on species richness, biomass and phylogenetic community structure with treatments and interactions among treatments as explanatory variables and site as a random effect. Although N-deposition affected plant nutrient balance, the effect of N-addition on vegetation was consistently smaller than the effect of disturbance, especially cutting. Disturbances all had the opposite effect to N-addition causing an increase in species richness and decrease of biomass. The subordinate effect of N-addition likely reflects that growth is limited by moisture rather than nitrogen. Disturbances apparently relaxed the ecological filtering during community assembly, resulting in a more diverse community of less related species. Anthropogenic suppression of disturbances by wind, coastal erosion or grazing animals may potentially be a larger threat to dune biodiversity than increased N-deposition. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The majority of Earth's biodiversity is unknown. This is particularly true for the vast part of soil biodiversity, which rarely can be observed directly. Metabarcoding of DNA extracted from the environment (eDNA) has become state-of-the-art in assessing soil biodiversity. For assessing fungal communities, eDNA metabarcoding is seen as an attractive alternative to classical surveying based on fruitbodies. However, it is unknown whether eDNA metabarcoding provides a representative sample of fungal diversity and census of threatened species. Therefore conservation planning and assessment are still based on fruitbody inventories. Based on a dataset of large ecological width, representing both soil eDNA metabarcoding and expert inventories of fungal fruitbodies in Denmark, we document for the first time the validity of eDNA sampling and metabarcoding as a practical inventory method and a measure of conservation value for fungi. Fruitbody data identified fewer species in total and per site, and had larger variance in site richness. Focusing on macrofungi – the class Agaricomycetes, and in turn the order Agaricales – metrics of total richness and compositional similarity converged between the methods. eDNA was suboptimal for recording the non-soil dwelling fungi such as lichens and polypores. β-Diversity was similar between methods, but more variation in community composition could be explained by environmental predictors in the eDNA data. The fruitbody survey was slightly better at finding red listed species. We find a better correspondence between biodiversity indices derived from fungal fruitbodies and DNA-based approaches than indicated in earlier studies. We argue that (historical) fungal community data based on fruitbody forays – with careful selection of taxonomic groups – may be interpreted together with modern DNA-based approaches to obtain a richer picture of the full mycobiota of the site, and for addressing historical changes. We estimated the costs of the two inventory approaches to be approximately similar for practical applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the face of climate change, populations have two survival options − they can remain in situ and tolerate the new climatic conditions (“stay”), or they can move to track their climatic niches (“go”). For sessile and small-stature organisms like alpine plants, staying requires broad climatic tolerances, realized niche shifts due to changing biotic interactions, acclimation through plasticity, or rapid genetic adaptation. Going, in contrast, requires good dispersal and colonization capacities. Neither the magnitude of climate change experienced locally nor the capacities required for staying/going in response to climate change are constant across landscapes, and both aspects may be strongly affected by local microclimatic variation associated with topographic complexity. We combine ideas from population and community ecology to discuss the effects of topographic complexity in the landscape on the immediate “stay” or “go” opportunities of local populations and communities, and on the selective pressures that may have shaped the stay or go capacities of the species occupying contrasting landscapes. We demonstrate, using example landscapes of different topographical complexity, how species’ thermal niches could be distributed across these landscapes, and how these, in turn, may affect many population and community ecological processes that are related to adaptation or dispersal. Focusing on treeless alpine or Arctic landscapes, where temperature is expected to be a strong determinant, our theorethical framework leads to the hypothesis that populations and communities of topographically complex (rough and patchy) landscapes should be both more resistant and more resilient to climate change than those of topographically simple (flat and homogeneous) landscapes. Our theorethical framework further points to how meta-community dynamics such as mass effects in topographically complex landscapes and extinction lags in simple landscapes, may mask and delay the long-term outcomes of these landscape differences under rapidly changing climates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biodiversity is declining on a global scale and the limited resources available for conservation efforts and research need to be used efficiently. Fungi are a megadiverse taxonomic group where lack of knowledge impedes sufficient conservation focus. Inventories of fungi require a high level of expertise and are difficult and expensive due to seasonal variation and fluctuation in sporocarp formation. Lidar offers objective, fine-resolution and potentially cheap and broad scale data for representing vegetation structure and has proven useful for prediction of the diversity of plant and animal species. In this study, we used lidar-derived variables as explanatory variables in models of fungal species richness and controlling gradients of species composition, represented by three ordination axes derived from multidimensional scaling. The fungal data comprised a data set of 1527 species recorded in three inventories of 121 sites covering all major terrestrial habitat types across Denmark. We compared the performance of lidar-derived explanatory variables with two field inventory-based sets of variables: 1) lists of vascular plants and 2) recordings of soil, microclimate and vegetation structure. Lidar-derived variables performed best in predicting fungal richness and the first ordination axis, interpreted as a gradient from low and open herb-dominated communities over closed swards and scrubs to closed-canopy forests (cross validated r 2 of 0.50 and 0.81, respectively). The number of red-listed species and the second ordination axis were poorly predicted by lidar, and the third ordination axis was equally well detected by the three explanatory sets of variables (cross validated r 2 of 0.38). From a fungal conservation perspective, it is promising that lidar-based variables hold information suitable for detecting major gradients in fungal richness and composition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Monophagous butterflies often have smaller ranges than their host plants, which could relate to host plant abundance. Many specialist butterflies have already gone regionally extinct and studies of the role of host plant and habitat abundance at resolutions sufficiently detailed to cover host plant abundance are urgently needed for conservation management. Here, we investigate the link between a predominantly monophagous butterfly – the critically endangered Euphydryas aurinia and its host – Succissa pratensis in Denmark using high resolution (1 × 1 km) butterfly distribution data and an extensive national host plant frequency data set. More specifically, we assessed whether patterns in the present day distribution of S. pratensis and its habitat can explain the current distribution of E. aurinia and which ecological factors determine habitat suitability for S. pratensis . We used logistic regression to model the occurrence of E. aurinia as a function of habitat and host plant abundance as well as connectivity among habitats. We also modelled the occurrence of S. pratensis from habitat type, soil type, precipitation and indicators of soil moisture, nutrient level, and pH using generalized additive models. The remaining E. aurinia populations are confined to small regions in northern Jutland and this pattern was well predicted by our model. High modelled probabilities of E. aurinia coincided with habitat abundance exceeding 6–7% of land area and host plant frequency within habitat exceeding 40% at plot scale. Habitat connectivity was not included in the most parsimonious model. S. pratensis occurrence probability increased with pH, decreased with nutrient status and showed a unimodal response to soil moisture. The geographic partitioning of pH and nutrient effects indicated host plant scarcity due to eutrophication in Eastern Denmark and acidification in Western Denmark. Our findings highlight the importance of identifying empirical thresholds for habitat and host plant abundance in future conservation of herbivorous insects while also taking host plant habitat requirements into account. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the latest decades, conservation awareness have increased and conservation of biodiversity is no longer an agenda restricted to pristine natural areas of high value but is being integrated in cultivated landscapes characterized by increasing fragmentation and anthropogenic pressures. Conservation of species has become relevant even in agricultural areas especially in countries heavily influenced by intensive farming and ubiquitous infrastructure. Based on the UN biodiversity convention all EU membership countries are obliged to develop a high nature value (HNV) farming indicator. The purpose of such an indicator is to provide a basis for informed decisions in prioritizing agricultural subsidies allocating these to high nature value areas. Here, the development of a national HNV farming indicator for Denmark is presented and its application in the Danish government-controlled agricultural subsidy system is outlined. The Danish HNV farming indicator is based on landscape structural parameters, known occurrences of natural and semi-natural habitats, current land use and the distributions of rare and threatened species. It covers all agricultural areas as well as Natura 2000 areas and nationally protected sites in Denmark, ranking them on a 0–13 point scale from low to high nature value according to their estimated value for threatened and rare biodiversity. The Danish government recognizes areas reaching at least 5 points as HNV farming areas eligible to subsidy and from 2015 and onwards the HNV farming indicator will be implemented for allocating part of the agricultural subsidies under the Rural Development Program in Denmark. The indicator will be updated annually to include the growing knowledge of species occurrence and land use changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Naturally disturbed coastal dunes have become strongly reduced during the last century due to the cessation of grazing by domestic herbivores, dune stabilization initiatives, and increasing nitrogen deposition, all promoting encroachment by grasses, shrubs and woody plants. We assessed the effects of three disturbance types (burning, trampling and blowouts) on plant and arthropod species richness and composition in dry coastal dunes in Jutland, Denmark. Environmental variables, plant presence–absence and arthropod abundance were measured in 150 1 × 2 m plots along transects in blowouts, burned areas, trampled paths and their paired controls. We used Nonmetric Multidimensional Scaling (NMDS) ordination to assess differences in species composition of disturbed areas and controls. Ordination scores were used as response variables in Linear Mixed Effect (LME) models to test for the effects of disturbances on plant and arthropod composition. Indicator species analysis revealed plant and arthropod species indicative for different disturbances. Plant and arthropod species richness and the number of annual plant species generally increased with disturbance, and plant and arthropod richness and composition responded differently to different disturbances. Arthropod communities were more diverse in disturbed plots and hosted species often found in early successional habitats of potential conservation value. Disturbance promoted β-diversity, but affected plants more than arthropods, likely because of the difference in colonization potential. A combination of disturbances maximized diversity, suggesting that re-installment of a diverse disturbance regime should be considered in dune management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Wetland habitats are among the most threatened of all ecosystems today and still face an on-going threat despite several international agreements and national policies. In Europe, the Habitats Directive (HD) plays an important role in the protection of habitats and species of European importance. In the present study we use statistical modelling techniques and geographic information systems to explore linkages between HD Annex 1 listed habitats in wetlands and catchment characteristics, e.g. size, geology and land uses at various spatial scales (50m, 100m, 500m and whole catchment). Specifically we test if we can predict the spatial distribution of protected wetland habitats from catchment characteristics and additionally that we can identify critical variables and their spatial scale. We find that we are able to use catchment characteristics to predict the occurrence of protected habitats in riparian areas with 76% correctly classified habitats. At the catchment scale a low percentage of anthropogenic drainage together with a high percentage of forest increase the probability of having protected habitats in riparian areas, whereas at the local scale a low percentage of arable land and a high percentage of natural vegetation increase the probability of having protected habitats. We believe that the model approach used can have important implications. Firstly, the model can be used as a screening tool for identifying areas with potential conservation value. Secondly, the model can also be used as a management planning tool. Riparian areas are increasingly being used as mitigation measures to reduce loads of nutrients and toxic compounds to freshwater ecosystems. These measures may interfere with the hydrological and biochemical settings in riparian areas and threaten communities that are sensitive to eutrophication, e.g. HD Annex 1 habitats. The model can with a relatively high predictability point to areas where mitigation measures should be avoided because of conservation interests. Similarly the model can be used to identify areas that potentially can be restored successfully. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]