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To link to full-text access for this article, visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2006.12.038 Byline: Julius N. Fobil (a), Nathaniel A. Armah (b), Jonathan N. Hogarh (c), Derick Carboo (d) Keywords: Sustainability; Public-private partnerships; Franchise; Waste clearance; Waste collection and pollution control Abstract: Urban waste collection system is a pivotal component of all waste management schemes around the world. Therefore, the efficient performance and the success of these schemes in urban pollution control rest on the ability of the collection systems to fully adapt to the prevailing cultural and social contexts within which they operate. Conceptually, institutions being the rules guiding the conduct of public service provision and routine social interactions, waste collection systems embedded in institutions can only realize their potentials if they fully evolve continuously to reflect evolving social and technical matrices underlying the cultures, organizations, institutions and social conditions they are designed to address. This paper is a product of an analysis of waste collection performance in Ghana under two different institutional and/or organizational regimes; from an initial entirely public sector dependence to a current mix of public-private sector participation drawing on actual planning data from 1985 to 2000. The analysis found that the overall performance of waste collection services in Ghana increased under the coupled system, with efficiency (in terms of total waste clearance and coverage of service provision) increasing rapidly with increased private-sector controls and levels of involvement, e.g. for solid waste, collection rate and disposal improved from 51% in 1998 to about 91% in the year 2000. However, such an increase in performance could not be sustained beyond 10 years of public-private partnerships. This analysis argues that the sustainability of improved waste collection efficiency is a function of the franchise and lease arrangements between private sector group on the one hand and public sector group (local authorities) on the other hand. The analysis therefore concludes that if such franchise and lease arrangements are not conceived out of an initial transparent process, such a provision could undermine the overall sustainability of private sector initiatives in collection services delivery in the long term, as in the case of the Accra example. Author Affiliation: (a) School of Public Health, College of Health Sciences, P.O. Box LG13, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana (b) UESP Capacity-Building & Training, Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development, PMB, Ministries Post Office, Accra, Ghana (c) Department of Environmental Science, College of Science, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, PMB, University Post Office, Kumasi, Ghana (d) Department of Chemistry, P.O. Box LG56, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana Article History: Received 21 December 2005; Revised 14 November 2006; Accepted 7 December 2006

Abstract: This study investigated the seasonality of atmospheric polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polychlorinated naphthalenes (PCNs) in Japan. Polyurethane foam (PUF) disk passive air samplers (PAS) were deployed simultaneously at 55 sites in spring 2008, summer 2008 and winter 2008/09. Sampler deployment spanned 8 continuous weeks in each season. The non-outlier ranges of the two pollutants (ng/sample) were as follows; ∑190PCBs: 6.5–38.6 (spring), 43.5–220.5 (summer) and 25.9–136 (winter); and ∑63PCNs: 0.4–3.9 (spring), 0.7–7.1 (summer) and 1.1–9.2 (winter). The corresponding values in air were ∑190PCBs (pg m−3): 33–197 (spring), 222–1125 (summer) and 132–694 (winter); and ∑63PCNs (pg m−3): 2.2–20 (spring), 3.5–36 (summer) and 5.7–47 (winter), when sampling rate of 3.5 m3 day−1 was assumed. Thus, the PCBs peaked in summer, while the PCNs mostly peaked in winter; there was an apparent contrast in their seasonality in Japan. For the PCNs, seasonal variability was significant at rural than urban sites. Normally, POPs would show relatively increased air content in summer due to vaporization effect. The PCNs appeared to deviate from such a trend because of overriding input of tri-CNs presumably transported from long range by northwesterly winds in the winter season. The dioxin-like fractions of either pollutant were reduced in winter by about 30–50%. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Registration of pesticides for use in Ghana is based on prospective environmental risk assessment (ERA) to assess the risks of future pesticide use on the environment. The present study evaluated whether pesticides currently used by Ghanaian farmers may harm the aquatic and terrestrial environment under day-to-day farm practice by performing a 1st tier ERA for terrestrial and aquatic environment and a 2nd tier ERA for the aquatic environment using existing scenarios and models. Results of the 1st tier risk assessment indicated that in the investigated regions in south Ghana, many pesticides might pose an acute risk to aquatic ecosystems adjacent to the treated fields while lambda cyhalothrin, chlorpyrifos, cypermethrin, dimethoate, mancozeb, carbendazim, sulphur, maneb and copper hydroxide may pose the highest chronic risks. Butachlor, dimethoate and carbendazim may pose acute risks to the terrestrial soil ecosystem, while glyphosate, chlorpyrifos, imidacloprid, dimethoate, mancozeb, carbendazim, maneb, copper hydroxide and cuprous oxide may pose the highest chronic risks. Many insecticides and some fungicides may pose acute risks to bees and terrestrial non-target arthropods. The 2nd tier acute aquatic risk assessment showed that most risks were substantiated using species sensitivity distribution (SSD). Actual pesticide use was a factor of 1.3–13 times higher than the recommended label instructions, indicating a general practice of overdosing. The case study shows that the PRIMET model in combination with the SSD concept may offer pesticide registration authorities in Ghana a means to assess environmental risks associated with pesticide usage in a user-friendly and cost-effective manner. • A pesticide use survey was conducted in central, greater Accra and eastern Ghana. • Environmental risks were calculated using a first tier model. • Many pesticides pose serious risks to aquatic and terrestrial organisms. • Second tier risk assessment using SSD refined the risks to aquatic organisms. • Pesticide use was a factor of 1.3–13 times higher than recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies evaluating dermal exposure to pesticides among applicators in tropical countries have largely been conducted using the patch dosimetry and hand wiping/washing techniques. This study used the more accurate whole-body dosimetry technique to evaluate dermal exposure to chlorpyrifos among applicators on rice farms in Ghana. The exposure levels were plotted as Cumulative Probability Distribution (CPD). Total Dermal Exposure (TDE) of chlorpyrifos among the median exposed and the 5% highly exposed groups during a spray event were 24 mg and 48 mg, respectively. When these were converted as a percentage of the quantity of active ingredient applied (Unit Exposure, UE), UE values of 0.03% and 0.06% were found among the median exposed and the 5% highly exposed groups, respectively. Overall, the hands were the most contaminated anatomical regions of the applicators, both in terms of proportion of TDE (39%) and skin loading (13 μg/cm 2 ). Also, the lower anatomical region was more contaminated (82% of TDE) compared to the upper anatomical region (18% of TDE). The levels of chlorpyrifos TDE among the applicators were found to be influenced by the quantity of insecticide applied and the height of the crops sprayed (p < 0.05). The pesticide UE data of the present study can be used to estimate the levels of dermal exposure under similar pesticide use scenarios among applicators. The findings of the present study suggest that protecting the hands and the lower anatomical regions with appropriate PPE may significantly reduce exposure among applicators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Generally, there is limited information on pesticide absorbed dose levels and health risk attributable to the dermal route of exposure among applicators. The objective of this study was to evaluate the absorbed dose levels and consequent health risk from dermal exposure to chlorpyrifos among applicators on rice farms in Ghana. The whole-body dosimetry technique was used to capture chlorpyrifos residues penetrating the applicators’ clothing and reaching their skin, as well as residues reaching uncovered body areas of the applicators. Acute (ADD D ) and chronic (LADD D ) absorbed dose levels of chlorpyrifos were estimated from the residues and plotted as cumulative probability distributions. Health risk from chlorpyrifos exposure was characterized using the Hazard Quotient (HQ) technique. Three of the four acute exposure guideline values used in the study indicated that applicators, represented by the median-exposed (ADD D , 15 μg/kg/day) and the 5% - highly exposed (ADD D , 27 μg/kg/day) groups were at high risk of acute adverse health effects due to chlorpyrifos exposure, with HQ values ranging from 1.5 to 5 and 2.7 to 9, respectively. Regarding chronic adverse health effects, none of the guideline values suggested risk among the median-exposed group (LADD D , 0.3 μg/kg/day), with HQ values ranging from 0.03 to 1. However, two of the chronic exposure guideline values suggested that the 5%- highly exposed group (LADD D , 0.6 μg/kg/day) may be adversely affected, with HQ values ranging from 1.2 to 2. These findings highlight the importance of the dermal route as a major pesticide exposure pathway and suggest possible exposure minimization strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]